Saturday 31 March 2018

#PHONETICS

#The_Study_of_Speech_Sounds

Phonetics has been defined as the science of speech sounds. It is a branch of linguistics and deals with the sounds produced by human beings in their speech behaviour. In speaking trial listening a complex of activities is involved : there is the production of speech which is the result of simultaneous activities of several body organs.

These activities are aimed at creating disturbances in the air. The inhaled air acts as source of energy setting the outside air vibrating so that the sound thus generated is carried along to the ears of the listener. The auditory process is set in motion which is again a complicated process involving auditory organs; perception of speech segments which involves discarding the non-significant features from the significant or distinctive features and perceiving only those that are meaningful. ‘Even a single speech sound combines a large number of distinctive features which provide the information on which an auditor bases recognition of the sound’ (Tiffany-Carrell). It is like retrieving a small visual image from a crowd of intricate details. But the brain can quickly decode the incoming signals that have been encoded by the speakers. ‘Physical energy in the form of sensory nerve impulses reaches the brain’, the brain circuitry is understood to organise them into percepts which are the basis of recognition. Obviously, a complex of multiple factors in the form of the listeners’ interest, his social background, intellectual level, pas! experience and other parameters play an active and significant role in the perception level, and the interpretation is made accordingly.

We thus observe that speech act encompasses intricate movements and activities that occur on different planes, some of them simultaneously and at incredible speed. We ate so used to speaking in a natural effortless manner, that we hardly give attention to the complex nature of speech production and speech perception.

#Branches_of_Linguistics
Phonetics    has three major branches:
1)   Articulatory Phonetics
2)   Auditory Phonetics
3)   Acoustic Phonetics

Articulatory phonetics is also known as physiological phonetics; and auditory phonetics is known by the name perceptual phonetics.

#Articulatory_Phonetics
This branch of phonetics recognises that there is speech producing mechanism in human beings. ‘The ‘apparatus’ that produces speech sounds is situated within the human body. However, it must be clear that there is no separate ‘apparatus’ exclusively used for generating speech sounds. Speech is, infact, an overlaid function in that human beings utilize in a special way organs which are part of the respiratory and digestive system. Man uses those organs for speaking which already serve other biological needs. Thus lips, teeth, tongue, hard palate, soft palate, trachea, lungs - all these organs used in speech production have different basic biological functions. In the process of cultural evolution, man devised ways of utilizing these organs and parts thereof (such as the tip, blade, front, centre, back of the tongue alongwith the corresponding areas or points in the roof of mouth or hard palate) for verbal communication.
Besides( these the airstream that goes in and out of the lungs forms the basis of speech; that is, speech is based en the outgoing airstream. Articulatory phonetics studies how the outgoing airstream is regulated along the vocal tract to form various speech sounds.

#Auditory_Phonetics
This branch of phonetics studies how speech sounds are heard and perceived. This galls for a close study of the psychology of perception on the one hand, and the mechanism of the neuro-muscular circuitry on the other.
Hearing is a very intricate process; it implies ‘interpreting the physical description of actual or proposed signals in terms of the auditory sensations which the signals would create if impressed upon the ear’ (French). Acoustic signals generate a ‘complex chain of physica
THE ESL ACADEMY BY SIRRANA



The Scarlet Letter opens with a long preamble about how the book came to be written. The nameless narrator was the surveyor of the customhouse in Salem, Massachusetts. In the customhouse’s attic, he discovered a number of documents, among them a manuscript that was bundled with a scarlet, gold-embroidered patch of cloth in the shape of an “A.” The manuscript, the work of a past surveyor, detailed events that occurred some two hundred years before the narrator’s time. When the narrator lost his customs post, he decided to write a fictional account of the events recorded in the manuscript. The Scarlet Letter is the final product.

⇂⇾πŸ‘‰The story begins in seventeenth-century Boston, then a Puritan settlement. A young woman, Hester Prynne, is led from the town prison with her infant daughter, Pearl, in her arms and the scarlet letter “A” on her breast. A man in the crowd tells an elderly onlooker that Hester is being punished for adultery. Hester’s husband, a scholar much older than she is, sent her ahead to America, but he never arrived in Boston. The consensus is that he has been lost at sea. While waiting for her husband, Hester has apparently had an affair, as she has given birth to a child. She will not reveal her lover’s identity, however, and the scarlet letter, along with her public shaming, is her punishment for her sin and her secrecy. On this day Hester is led to the town scaffold and harangued by the town fathers, but she again refuses to identify her child’s father.
The elderly onlooker is Hester’s missing husband, who is now practicing medicine and calling himself Roger Chillingworth. He settles in Boston, intent on revenge. He reveals his true identity to no one but Hester, whom he has sworn to secrecy. Several years pass. Hester supports herself by working as a seamstress, and Pearl grows into a willful, impish child. Shunned by the community, they live in a small cottage on the outskirts of Boston. Community officials attempt to take Pearl away from Hester, but, with the help of Arthur Dimmesdale, a young and eloquent minister, the mother and daughter manage to stay together. Dimmesdale, however, appears to be wasting away and suffers from mysterious heart trouble, seemingly caused by psychological distress. Chillingworth attaches himself to the ailing minister and eventually moves in with him so that he can provide his patient with round-the-clock care. Chillingworth also suspects that there may be a connection between the minister’s torments and Hester’s secret, and he begins to test Dimmesdale to see what he can learn. One afternoon, while the minister sleeps, Chillingworth discovers a mark on the man’s breast (the details of which are kept from the reader), which convinces him that his suspicions are correct.
Dimmesdale’s psychological anguish deepens, and he invents new tortures for himself. In the meantime, Hester’s charitable deeds and quiet humility have earned her a reprieve from the scorn of the community. One night, when Pearl is about seven years old, she and her mother are returning home from a visit to a deathbed when they encounter Dimmesdale atop the town scaffold, trying to punish himself for his sins. Hester and Pearl join him, and the three link hands. Dimmesdale refuses Pearl’s request that he acknowledge her publicly the next day, and a meteor marks a dull red “A” in the night sky. Hester can see that the minister’s condition is worsening, and she resolves to intervene. She goes to Chillingworth and asks him to stop adding to Dimmesdale’s self-torment. Chillingworth refuses.
Hester arranges an encounter with Dimmesdale in the forest because she is aware that Chillingworth has probably guessed that she plans to reveal his identity to Dimmesdale. The former lovers decide to flee to Europe, where they can live with Pearl as a family. They will take a ship sailing from Boston in four days. Both feel a sense of release, and Hester removes her scarlet letter and lets down her hair. Pearl, playing nearby, does not recognize her mother without the letter. The day before the ship is to sail, the townspeople gather for a holiday and Dimmesdale preaches his most eloquent sermon ever. Meanwhile, Hester has learned that Chillingworth knows of their plan and has booked passage on the same ship. Dimmesdale, leaving the church after his sermon, sees Hester and Pearl standing before the town scaffold. He impulsively mounts the scaffold with his lover and his daughter, and confesses publicly, exposing a scarlet letter seared into the flesh of his chest. He falls dead, as Pearl kisses him.
Frustrated in his revenge, Chillingworth dies a year later. Hester and Pearl leave Boston, and no one knows what has happened to them. Many years later, Hester returns alone, still wearing the scarlet letter, to live in her old cottage and resume her charitable work. She receives occasional letters from Pearl, who has married a European aristocrat and established a family of her own. When Hester dies, she is buried next to Dimmesdale. The two share a single tombstone, which bears a scarlet “A.”

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉGerund vs Participle..

A gerund is a verb that acts like a noun. For example: Hiking is a verb, but when used as the subject of a sentence, it acts like a noun, e.g. "Hiking is something I do in the summer." A participle is an adjective made from a verb.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»down vote
accepted
A gerund is a form of a verb used as a noun, whereas a participle is a form of verb used as an adjective or as a verb in conjunction with an auxiliary verb.

In English, the present participle has the same form as the gerund, and the difference is in how they are used. When used with an auxiliary verb ("is walking"), it serves as a verb and is the present participle. When used as an adjective ("a walking contradiction") it is also a participle. However, when used as a noun ("walking is good for you"), it is a gerund.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»Verbals: Gerunds, Infinitives, and Participles

The three verbals— gerunds, infinitives, and participles—are formed from verbs, but are never used alone as action words in sentences. Instead, verbals function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. These verbals are important in phrases.

The gerund ends in -ing and functions as a noun.
Jumping is fun.

He liked skiing.

He had a unique way of whistling.

The infinitive is the base form of a verb with to. Usually it functions as a noun, although it can also function as an adjective or adverb.

To jump is fun. (noun; subject of the verb is)

I like to ski. (noun; direct object of the verb like)

She had a suggestion to offer. (adjective modifying suggestion)

He called to warn her. (adverb modifying the verb called)

A participle is a verb that ends in -ing (present participle) or -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n (past participle). Participles may function as adjectives, describing or modifying nouns.

The dancing parrots entertained the crowd.

The wrecked sailboat washed up on shore.

But participles have another function. When used with helping verbs such as to be and to have, they are action verbs and form several verb tenses.

She is thinking of the children.

The conference room had been cleaned  before they arrived.


πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉPrepared by SirRana
πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉGerund vs Participle..

A gerund is a verb that acts like a noun. For example: Hiking is a verb, but when used as the subject of a sentence, it acts like a noun, e.g. "Hiking is something I do in the summer." A participle is an adjective made from a verb.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»down vote
accepted
A gerund is a form of a verb used as a noun, whereas a participle is a form of verb used as an adjective or as a verb in conjunction with an auxiliary verb.

In English, the present participle has the same form as the gerund, and the difference is in how they are used. When used with an auxiliary verb ("is walking"), it serves as a verb and is the present participle. When used as an adjective ("a walking contradiction") it is also a participle. However, when used as a noun ("walking is good for you"), it is a gerund.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»Verbals: Gerunds, Infinitives, and Participles

The three verbals— gerunds, infinitives, and participles—are formed from verbs, but are never used alone as action words in sentences. Instead, verbals function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. These verbals are important in phrases.

The gerund ends in -ing and functions as a noun.
Jumping is fun.

He liked skiing.

He had a unique way of whistling.

The infinitive is the base form of a verb with to. Usually it functions as a noun, although it can also function as an adjective or adverb.

To jump is fun. (noun; subject of the verb is)

I like to ski. (noun; direct object of the verb like)

She had a suggestion to offer. (adjective modifying suggestion)

He called to warn her. (adverb modifying the verb called)

A participle is a verb that ends in -ing (present participle) or -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n (past participle). Participles may function as adjectives, describing or modifying nouns.

The dancing parrots entertained the crowd.

The wrecked sailboat washed up on shore.

But participles have another function. When used with helping verbs such as to be and to have, they are action verbs and form several verb tenses.

She is thinking of the children.

The conference room had been cleaned  before they arrived.


πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉPrepared by SirRana
πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉGerund vs Participle..

A gerund is a verb that acts like a noun. For example: Hiking is a verb, but when used as the subject of a sentence, it acts like a noun, e.g. "Hiking is something I do in the summer." A participle is an adjective made from a verb.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»down vote
accepted
A gerund is a form of a verb used as a noun, whereas a participle is a form of verb used as an adjective or as a verb in conjunction with an auxiliary verb.

In English, the present participle has the same form as the gerund, and the difference is in how they are used. When used with an auxiliary verb ("is walking"), it serves as a verb and is the present participle. When used as an adjective ("a walking contradiction") it is also a participle. However, when used as a noun ("walking is good for you"), it is a gerund.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»Verbals: Gerunds, Infinitives, and Participles

The three verbals— gerunds, infinitives, and participles—are formed from verbs, but are never used alone as action words in sentences. Instead, verbals function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. These verbals are important in phrases.

The gerund ends in -ing and functions as a noun.
Jumping is fun.

He liked skiing.

He had a unique way of whistling.

The infinitive is the base form of a verb with to. Usually it functions as a noun, although it can also function as an adjective or adverb.

To jump is fun. (noun; subject of the verb is)

I like to ski. (noun; direct object of the verb like)

She had a suggestion to offer. (adjective modifying suggestion)

He called to warn her. (adverb modifying the verb called)

A participle is a verb that ends in -ing (present participle) or -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n (past participle). Participles may function as adjectives, describing or modifying nouns.

The dancing parrots entertained the crowd.

The wrecked sailboat washed up on shore.

But participles have another function. When used with helping verbs such as to be and to have, they are action verbs and form several verb tenses.

She is thinking of the children.

The conference room had been cleaned  before they arrived.


πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉPrepared by SirRana
πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉGerund vs Participle..

A gerund is a verb that acts like a noun. For example: Hiking is a verb, but when used as the subject of a sentence, it acts like a noun, e.g. "Hiking is something I do in the summer." A participle is an adjective made from a verb.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»down vote
accepted
A gerund is a form of a verb used as a noun, whereas a participle is a form of verb used as an adjective or as a verb in conjunction with an auxiliary verb.

In English, the present participle has the same form as the gerund, and the difference is in how they are used. When used with an auxiliary verb ("is walking"), it serves as a verb and is the present participle. When used as an adjective ("a walking contradiction") it is also a participle. However, when used as a noun ("walking is good for you"), it is a gerund.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»Verbals: Gerunds, Infinitives, and Participles

The three verbals— gerunds, infinitives, and participles—are formed from verbs, but are never used alone as action words in sentences. Instead, verbals function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. These verbals are important in phrases.

The gerund ends in -ing and functions as a noun.
Jumping is fun.

He liked skiing.

He had a unique way of whistling.

The infinitive is the base form of a verb with to. Usually it functions as a noun, although it can also function as an adjective or adverb.

To jump is fun. (noun; subject of the verb is)

I like to ski. (noun; direct object of the verb like)

She had a suggestion to offer. (adjective modifying suggestion)

He called to warn her. (adverb modifying the verb called)

A participle is a verb that ends in -ing (present participle) or -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n (past participle). Participles may function as adjectives, describing or modifying nouns.

The dancing parrots entertained the crowd.

The wrecked sailboat washed up on shore.

But participles have another function. When used with helping verbs such as to be and to have, they are action verbs and form several verb tenses.

She is thinking of the children.

The conference room had been cleaned  before they arrived.


πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉPrepared by SirRana
#English_Language_Communication_Skills_Mcqs

1. communication is derived from Latin word
(a) Community (b) Command
(c) Communis (d) Committee
Answer is = c
2. Community means
(a) Community (b) common
(c) Command (d) Committee
Answer is = a
3. Communication involves
(a) Telling (b) Listening
(c) Under standing (d) All of the above
Answer is = d
4. exchange of ideas between two or more persons is
(a) Understanding (b) Telling
(c) communication (d) listening
Answer is = C
5. if there is no receiver, there is no
(a) communication (b) sender
(c) Message (d) Media
Answer is = A
6. Effective communication is that in which
(a) sender sends a complete message
(b) Receiver understands the message of sender
(c) Communication is oral
(d) communicaton is in writing
Answer is =B
7. Which is not the type of communication channel
(a) Speaking, listening
(b) Writing, reading
(c) Visualizing, observing
(d) Thinking, acting
Answer is : d
8. Communicatio without words is called
(a) Non- verbal communication
(b) Verbal
(c) Oral communication
(d) Written communication
Answer is =A
9. The number of English Language communication skills are
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
Answer is =C
10. English language communication skills are
(a) listening, thinking, speaking, reading
(b) listening, speaking, skimming, reading
(c) listening, speaking, reading, writing
(d) Thinking, skimming, reading, writing
Answer is =C
11. The first objective of teaching English is to develop
(a) Listening skill
(b) speaking skill
(c) Reading skill
(d) writing skill
Answer is =A
12. The numbers of kings of sounds are
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
Answer is =A
13. The kinds of sounds are
(a) Consonant sounds, oral sounds
(b) Oral sounds, vowel sound
(c) Verbal sounds, consonant sounds
(d) consonant sounds, vowel sounds
Answer is ?
14. phoneme is the unit of sound
(a) Maximum (b) Minimum
(c) Medium (d) Large
Answer is =B
15. which one is not the articulator
(a) Face (b) Tongue
(c) Lips (d) Teeth
Answer is = a
16. Uttering with the force of breath is
(a) Consonant (b) Vowel
(c) phonems (d) stress
Answer is = d
17. the number of branches of phonetics are
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
Answer is = b
18. phonology is the study of how sounds are
(a) Produced (b) Transmitted
(c) Organized (d) Distinguished
Answer is = c
19. The highest level in linguistics is
(a) Phonology (b) phonetics
(c) Morphology (d) Pragmatics
Answer is = b
20. The numbers of vowels in English are
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
Answer is = d
21. The number of consonants in English are
(a) 15 (b) 21
(c) 26 (d) 31
Answer is = b
22. The convession of spoken words into written language is
(a) Transplantation (b) Transmission
(c) Transcription (d) Translation
Answer is = c
23. Transcription is also called as
(a) Notation (b) Citation
(c) Translation (d) Transmission
Answer is = a
24. Orthography means
(a) Speaking system
(b) Listening system
(c) Writing system
(d) Reading system
Answer is = c
25. The number of vowel sound is
(a) 5 (b) 15
(c) 20 (d) 26
Answer is = c
26. The number of consonant sound is
(a) 15 (b) 21
(c) 24 (d) 26
Answer is = c
27. The number of phonemes in standard British English is
(a) 5 (b) 20
(c) 24 (d) 44
Answer is = d
28. The letter which are written but not spoken are
(a) Vowels (b) Consonants
(c) small (d) silent
Answer is = d
29. A phoneme is a
(a) symbol (b) letter
(c) sound (d) word
Answer is = c
30. Linguistic is the scientific study of
(a) language (b) sounds
(c) words (d) sentence
Answer is = b
31. Language is a vehiclefor expression of feeling is
(a) formal view (b) structural view
(c) functional view (d) traditional view
Answer is = c
32. How language is structure is
(a) Functional view (b) srtucturla view
(c) communitive view (d) traditional view
Answer is = b
33. Arbitrariness means
(a) chosen with reason
(b) chosen without reason
(c) random selection
(d) rationale
Answer is = b
34. The spoken languages in the world are about
(a) 3000 (b) 3500
(c) 4000 (d) 4500
Answer is = a
35. According to david crystal, the t
πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»SirRana.....

πŸ‘‰πŸ»The ESL ACADEMY


πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»Imperialism vs Orientalism



πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉWestern philosophy is the philosophical  thought and work of the Western world. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking of Western culture, beginning with Greek philosophy of the Pre-Socratics such as Thales (c. 624 – c. 546 BC) and Pythagoras (c. 570 BC – c. 495 BC), and eventually covering a large area of the globe.[1][2] The word philosophy itself originated from the Ancient Greek: philosophia  (φιλοσοφία), literally, "the love of wisdom" (φιλΡῖν philein, "to love" and σοφία sophia, "wisdom").

The scope of philosophy in the ancient understanding, and the writings of (at least some of) the ancient philosophers, were all  intellectual endeavors. This included the problems of philosophy as they are understood today; but it also included many other disciplines, such as pure mathematics  and natural sciences such as physics, astronomy, and biology (Aristotle, for example, wrote on all of these topics)....

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉEdward Wadie Said (Arabic: Ψ₯دوارد وديع سعيد‎ [wΓ¦diːʕ sΓ¦Κ•iːd], Idwārd WadΔ«ΚΏ SaΚΏΔ«d; 1 November 1935 – 25 September 2003) was a professor of literature at Columbia University, a public intellectual, and a founder of the academic field of postcolonial studies.[3] A Palestinian American born in Mandatory Palestine, he was a citizen of the United States by way of his father, a U.S. Army veteran.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉBorn
Edward Wadie Said
1 November 1935
Jerusalem, Mandatory Palestine
Died
25 September 2003 (aged 67)
New York City, United States
Education
Princeton University
Spouse(s)
Mariam C. Said
Era
20th-century philosophy
Region
Western philosophy
School
Continental philosophy
Postcolonialism
Notable ideas
Occidentalism, Orientalism, the Other
Influences
Arthur Schopenhauer, Joseph Conrad, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Frantz Fanon, AimΓ© CΓ©saire, Giambattista Vico, Noam Chomsky, Theodor Adorno, Antonio Gramsci, Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Bertrand Russell[1][2]
Influenced
Homi K. Bhabha, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Hamid Dabashi, Robert Fisk, Christopher Hitchens, Rashid Khalidi
Educated in the Western canon, at British and American schools, Said applied his education and bi-cultural perspective to illuminating the gaps of cultural and political understanding between the Western world and the Eastern world, especially about the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in the Middle East; his principal influences were Antonio Gramsci, Frantz Fanon, AimΓ© CΓ©saire, Michel Foucault, and Theodor Adorno.[4]

As a cultural critic, Said is known for the book Orientalism (1978), a critique of the cultural representations that are the bases of Orientalism—how the Western world perceives the Orient.[5][6][7][8] Said's model of textual analysis transformed the academic discourse of researchers in literary theory, literary criticism, and Middle-Eastern studies—how academics examine, describe, and define the cultures being studied.[9][10] As a foundational text, Orientalism was controversial among the scholars of Oriental Studies, philosophy, and literature.[11][4]

As a public intellectual, Said was a controversial member of the Palestinian National Council, because he publicly criticized Israel and the Arab countries, especially the political and cultural policies of Muslim rΓ©gimes who acted against the national interests of their peoples.[12][13] Said advocated the establishment of a Palestinian state to ensure equal political and human rights for the Palestinians in Israel, including the right of return to the homeland. He defined his oppositional relation with the status quo  as the remit of the public intellectual who has "to sift, to judge, to criticize, to choose, so that choice and agency return to the individual" man and woman.


πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉπŸŒΉIn 1999, with his friend Daniel Barenboim, Said co-founded the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra, based in Seville, which comprises young Israeli, Palestinian, and A
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πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸŒΉOrientalism by Edward W. Said is a critique of the study of the Orient and its ideology. Said examines the historical, cultural, and political views of the East that are held by the West, and examines how they developed and where they came from. He basically traces the various views and perceptions back to the colonial period of British and European domination in the Middle East. During this period, the United States was not yet a world power and didn't enter into anything in the East yet. The views and perceptions that came into being were basically the result of the British and French. The British had colonies in the East at this time; the French did not but were trying to acquire some.

The beginning of the study of Orientalism is traced to the early eighteenth century and focused on language. This early study consisted of translating works from the Oriental languages into European languages. The colonial rulers could not rule properly, it was believed, without some knowledge of the people they ruled. They thought they could acquire this knowledge from translating various works from the native language into their own. The Orient existed to be studied and that studying was done by Westerners who believed themselves to be superior to the "others", which is how they described the East. They were basically the opposite of the East and considered to the active while the Orient was considered to be passive. The Orient existed to be ruled and dominated.

The Orientalist scholars did not distinguish among the countries of the region. The term "Oriental" was used to describe the Middle East and Near East and Far East. All of these different cultures were basically lumped into one for the purposes of study. The reason for the study was political also. The focus is on language and literature and the study in the area of philology where the already written texts and other works were translated as a means of studying the culture. The misrepresentations of the Orient and the various aspects of the Orient led to confusion and misinterpretation by the scholars and politicians.

Said points out the errors in the ways of these early Orientalists. He questions the claim that the Orient was biologically inferior to the European and thus required domination. Said wants the study to focus on the human experience of the cultures and societies. He points out the errors in many of the earlier studies. The Orientalists, and therefore the Europeans, did not understand the Muslim or Oriental and were afraid, based on their fears. Their studies propagated these fears and persisted until a certain level of understanding was reached. This occurred after World War I when the study of the Orient shifted from Europe to the United States and became part of the area studies of various social science departments at universities. The Orient should be viewed for itself and its own cultures and societies and not viewed in the concept of Western perspective. Said's perspective basically led to a difference in the way the Orient was approached in studies, which led the field into a more modern approach...

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Friday 30 March 2018

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πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»Chomsky's Theory of Universal Grammar

In weakest form, UG is the idea that all human languages share a set of properties which no other animal communication system possesses in whole, and that these make up what we mean by "language". Here are some of these properties:
referentiality -- a communicative act reliably indicates an entity or referent
unlike, e.g., dog barks, which merely indicate the dog is excited
non-iconicity -- the form of a communication act does not correspond reliably with the meaning
unlike, e.g., bee dances, in which the vigor of the dance corresponds to the amount of food; the "arbitrary relationship between the signifier and the signified" is a key aspect of natural human languages
productivity (open-class) -- words can freely be added to refer to new meanings
unlike the calls of certain monkey species, which can distinguish between EAGLE (airborne predators), LION (groundborne, carnivorous predators), and SNAKE (poisonous, hidden dangers), but cannot distinguish other meanings
hierarchical structure -- a communicative sequence is composed of recognizable sub-parts, which themselves may have sub-parts
for example, "John likes Mary" can be divided into the subject "John" and the predicate "likes Mary"
recursive structure -- in which a communicative sequence contains a part that is like itself
for example, "the cat that ate the rat" is a noun phrase, which picks out a unique cat; "the rat" is also a noun phrase, which picks out a unique rat; "the rat" is a part of "the cat that ate the rat" so the large noun phrase contains the smaller one
compositionality -- the meaning of the whole is normally determined by the meaning of the sub-parts, and the way in which they are arranged
for example, "John likes Mary" can only mean that John is the liker, and Mary is the likee; it may also be true that Mary likes John, but to communicate this we have to use the opposite order "Mary likes John"

It is generally accepted by all reasonable people that the properties listed above do indeed characterize all human languages, and nearly everyone agrees that no other animal communication system has all of these properties together. Thus, the weakest form of UG is the idea that the genetic endowment of humans incorporates the cognitive machinery to produce a computational system with the properties listed above. In short, "language is special; no one else does it; there must be some special part of our genetic heritage which sets us apart from other animals".

A slightly stronger version of UG arises from the fact that there are non-obvious restrictions on the types of sentences that humans freely generate. For example, consider the following, completely unremarkable exchange:
        (Background: Mike fixed the car with a hammer.)
        Question: [How] did Mike fix the car?
        Reply: [With a hammer].
Seeing question-answer pairs like this, one might be tempted to hypothesize that whatever the answer is, the corresponding question is formed by repeating the answer, except that focus of the question (in the above, [with a hammer]) is replaced by the question word (who, what, when, where, how, etc..), which is in turn moved to the front of the sentence. This hypothesis is falsified by the following, ungrammatical exchange:
        (Background: John knew that Mike fixed the car with a hammer.
        Question: [How] did John know that Mike fixed the car?
        Reply: *[With a hammer]
In this latter case, the reply "with a hammer" can only mean that Mike fixed the car, and that John somehow used a hammer to discover this fact. It is eminently reasonable that Mike would fix a car using a hammer; indeed this is far more likely than John using a hammer to discover that Mike fixed the car. However, the interpretation that [with a hammer] refers to Mike's fixing, rather than John's knowing, is somehow blocked. 
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#English_dialect_study

#an_overview_By_Clive_Upton

#What_is_a_dialect?

Dialect is one of those words that almost everybody thinks they understand, but which is in fact a bit more problematic than at first seems to be the case. A simple, straightforward definition is that a dialect is any variety of English that is marked off from others by distinctive linguistic features. Such a variety could be associated with a particular place or region or, rather more surprisingly, it might also be associated with a certain social group—male or female, young or old, and so on.

But whether the focus is regional or social, there are two important matters that need to be considered when defining ‘dialect’. We have to decide what the building blocks of a dialect might be. And even before this, we could usefully confront the most common mistakes that people make when referring to ‘dialect’.

#Dialect_or_accent?

A common mistake is to confuse a ‘dialect’ with an accent, muddling up the difference between words people use and the sounds they make, their pronunciation. If vocabulary and grammar are being considered alongside pronunciation, then ‘dialect’ is a reasonable term to use. But often, when claiming to discuss a dialect, someone will concentrate just on pronunciations. If what is being spoken about are sounds alone—that is, accent—then the area of language study is rather pronunciation, or phonology.

It will be obvious from this that accent, or pronunciation, is a special element of a dialect that needs separate attention to be properly understood. Arguably the best-known phonological distinction in England is the so-called ‘BATH vowel’, the quality of the a sound differing between north and south. Another, still more significant on the world stage, concerns the issue of rhoticity, relating to whether or not written r is sounded when it follows a vowel. Whilst most people in England and Wales do not pronounce the r (and are therefore non-rhotic), those in the English West Country and parts of Lancashire do. In this they are joined by most Scots and Irish speakers of English, and by the majority of North Americans. Although the English tend to regard rhoticity as an exotic aberration, it is in fact numerically and geographically the dominant form in world terms.

#Where_do_dialects_begin_and_end?

Another fundamental mistake is to think of the ‘standard’ variety of a language as the language, with dialects relegated to substandard status. By subscribing to the definition of ‘dialect’ as a distinct variety, we are agreeing that the standard variety itself is a dialect. Of course, that variety is special in that, for a space of time at least, it is regarded as a model for purposes that include language teaching and the general transmission of day-to-day information. But structurally there is nothing inherently superior in the make-up of a ‘standard dialect’: non-standard dialects have vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation which are equally detailed in structure, and indeed are often imbued with pedigrees far older than those of the standard variety of the day.

A good case of pedigree is that of while, which in West Yorkshire usage today (and well into the twentieth century in usage much further south) can mean ‘until’ in such expressions as ‘wait while five o’clock’. It would be easy to dismiss this as quaint or even wrong, but its documented history goes back at least to the fourteenth century, and it was doubtless in spoken use well before then. At the level of social dialect, young men are often vilified, not least by their female friends, for calling young women birds. That this is too easy a judgment becomes apparent when one notes that burd has a long history, and is defined as a poetic word for ‘woman, lady’.

#Place_and_upbringing

Undoubtedly the most accessible part of a language that we can study is its vocabulary, or lexis. As we move from one part of a country to another we hear words that are entirely strange to us. Or

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»Post Modernism



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πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»Postmodernism is a broad movement that developed in the mid- to late-20th century across philosophy, the arts, architecture, and criticism and that marked a departure from modernism.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»The term has also more generally been applied to the historical era following modernity, and the tendencies of this era.

🌹While encompassing a disparate variety of approaches, postmodernism is typically defined by an attitude of skepticism, irony, or rejection toward the meta-narratives and ideologies of modernism, and often calls into question various assumptions of Enlightenment rationality.Common targets of postmodern critique include universalist  notions of objective reality, morality, truth, human nature, reason, language, and social progress.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ» Postmodern thinkers frequently call attention to the contingent or socially-conditioned nature of knowledge claims and value systems, situating them as products of particular political, historical, or cultural discourses and hierarchies.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ» Accordingly, postmodern thought is broadly characterized by tendencies to self-referentiality, epistemological and moral relativism, pluralism, subjectivism, and irreverence.

Postmodern critical approaches gained purchase in the 1980s and 1990s, and have been adopted in a variety of academic and theoretical disciplines, including cultural studies, philosophy of science, economics, linguistics, architecture, feminist theory, and literary criticism, as well as art movements in fields such as literature and music. Postmodernism is often associated with schools of thought such as deconstruction  and post-structuralism, as well as philosophers such as Jean-FranΓ§ois Lyotard, Jacques Derrida, and Fredric Jameson, though many so-labeled thinkers have criticized the term.


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Thursday 29 March 2018

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»THE ESL ACADEMY...

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πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»Aldous Huxley's The Education Of An Amphibian
Introduction
Man and his position
Huxley contends that man is a five or six amphibians rolled into one. Man who is biologically called Homo Sapiens explores the realms of his mind on this earth and also infesting it at the same time. So man is multi amphibian whose very nature is indicative of many troubles for him and the others around him. So we human beings are the most obedient and independent creature on the earth. Man is not homo sapiens only, he is also homo loquax because he possess the gift of speech. If he is not homo loquax then he like the Yahoo of Gulliver’s Travels.

Language and man
So the importance of language for man cannot be underestimated.  It is the language which raised man from his brute status to civilized one. So language gave birth to human civilization. Language itself is a superb work of genius created by man. Whatever human culture or society may be, language is central to their existence. It is a medium through which we communicate and if this link is broken, we will again turn to brutes because language is the symbol of civilization. This should not lead us to the fact that language is always positive in society. Like every thing else, it has its pros and cons. Our various principles or dogmas are communicated through language so language is used destructively. The misuse of language has turned people into fanatics as language is largely used for propaganda.  Bartlett, in this case, has carried various experiments to see the effect of language on memory. He came to the conclusion that language stamps on our memory and we cannot come out of our conventional or stereotyped image of a being. So language is the foundation stone of memory. Our infancy is the age of non-verbal communication so none of us can be recalled what we did as a child, but we can recall almost everything ever since we began to speak a language.

Theorising and practicum
Huxley believes that too much theorizing is fatal to human soul. It corrupts it and deforms it. Too many lectures or sermons deaden our every day routine life because theorizing entails no spiritual development. But absence of theory (of medicine, law, religions or any other science) will again turn us into Yahoos. So we need a different approach. We live in the world of ideas and practice. These are two different worlds. Unless we promote education in both these fields, we will be verbal and lead to disaster.

Education of man
Modern educationists promote non-verbal aspect of human education more than they emphasise the verbal side.  Now, we have instrumental theory of education which is based on learning through experience. Kinesthetic sense is important in learning by doing because we form certain habits by doing something if this is good, learning is good, if the habit or repetition is bad, learning is bound to have bad effect, though some scholars don’t differentiate between good and bad doing. So learning is psycho-physical activity.  Modern classroom must provide means to get visual perception of the student sound. We should use certain training devices to make the vision strong and healthy. In this way, spiritual insight is important in non-verbal education. The art of spiritual insight has been defined by Dr. Suzuki as ‘becoming conscious of the unconscious’.

πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»πŸ‘‰πŸ»Conclusion
The basic theme of the essay is that education should be sound so that we can get rid of our misguided perceptions, unsound feelings, unrealistic thinking and bad habits. Man is doer and speaker so he must behave well and this is the key to avoid offensive behavior with others.

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Wednesday 28 March 2018

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Article abstract: Ruskin was the most influential critic of art and architecture in the nineteenth century, promoting the notion that art had a moral purpose; as a social critic, he worked to undercut notions of laissez-faire economics and utilitarianism, championing the dignity of individual workers and the need for national programs of education and welfare.
Early Life
John Ruskin’s parents, wine merchant John James Ruskin and his wife Margaret, were convinced that their child was destined for greatness. With this future in mind, they reared him in sheltered comfort, keeping him from activities that might lead to injury, affording him few opportunities to play with children his own age. Young John read the Bible with his devout mother, who believed he would one day be a great divine, and listened to the works of Sir Walter Scott and other literary luminaries read by his father, who thought John destined for fame as a poet. In the isolation of his home, Herne Hill, outside London, Ruskin wrote poetry and sketched for amusement. There, too, he was privately tutored in preparation for entry into Oxford.
Business activities meant frequent trips for his father, and as a child Ruskin had ample opportunity to see both Great Britain and later the Continent in his parents’ company. On a trip through France in 1835, he met AdΓ¨le Domecq, eldest daughter of his father’s business partner; unaccustomed to the company of young females, Ruskin fell helplessly and confusedly in love. For several years he harbored deep feelings for AdΓ¨le, but he was eventually disappointed when she married a French nobleman in 1840.
Meanwhile, Ruskin was already writing on subjects that would occupy him for much of his adult life: art and architecture. He had published scientific papers when he was only fifteen, and had already published poetry before he enrolled at Oxford in 1837. While a student there, he began a series for Architectural Magazine titled “The Poetry of Architecture”; these essays stress the importance of landscape art as an expression of the artist’s view of nature, not mere slavish imitation—a theme he would elaborate in his multivolume Modern Painters (1843-1860).
Ruskin’s life at Oxford was by most standards unusual. Friends at Christ Church College knew him as a friendly sort, slender, with reddish hair, and pale blue eyes accentuated by the blue cravat he wore. Though he resided at the college, his mother had taken rooms nearby to oversee his education. For three years, Ruskin strove for the Newdigate Prize for poetry, largely at his father’s insistence, winning the prize in 1839. Unfortunately, he found his preparation for Oxford insufficient in some areas and eventually had to take a leave of absence to recover from a stress-related illness. Not until 1842 did he receive a B.A., taking a double fourth in classics and mathematics.
Life’s Work
Ruskin’s emergence into the public forum came as a result of his passion for art. Long an admirer of the iconoclastic painter J. M. W. Turner, in 1842 Ruskin found himself compelled to undertake a systematic defense of the artist to rebut a savage review of Turner’s work. At the same time, his family moved to Denmark Hill, which was to be Ruskin’s home for three decades. There he wrote diligently what eventually became the first of a multivolume work explaining the principles that characterize great art: power, imitation, truth, beauty, and relation. The first volume of Modern Painters was published in 1843; Ruskin identified himself on the title page simply as “A Graduate of Oxford,” ostensibly to mask the fact that he was so young to write so authoritatively.
Modern Painters was favorably received, and Ruskin set about immediately to continue his study. In 1845, he was allowed to travel to the Continent without his parents for the first time. In Italy he studied the works of antiquity and the Renaissance, a period for which Ruskin had great antipathy. He also spent considerable time studying the architecture of the cities through which he traveled. As a consequence, the second volume of Modern Painters did not follow slavishly the plan set out in the first volume and implied in its title; instead, Ruskin digressed to discuss the art he had observed during his more recent trips.
The success of his work made Ruskin popular socially, and his parents hoped he would eventually marry Charlotte Lockhart, granddaughter of Sir Walter Scott. Ruskin, however, had other ideas; he fell in love with Euphemia (“Effie”) Gray, daughter of a Perth businessman. After some months of awkward courtship, they were married, on April 10, 1848.
Marriage did not change Ruskin’s life-style greatly; he continued his travels and writings, preparing studies of architecture that appeared in 1849 as The Seven Lamps of Architecture. Further investigations, and deeper thought about the relationship between great buildings and those who built them, resulted in the three volumes published in 1851-1853 as The Stones of Venice. In the work, Ruskin argues that one can read a city’s history in its architecture, and make judgments about a society based on the kind of buildings it erects. During this same period, Ruskin began what was to be a lifelong defense of the Pre-Raphaelite painters and poets.
Meanwhile, relations between Ruskin and his wife deteriorated, as John’s parents found their daughter-in-law an interloper in their close-knit family, a view their son came to share. By 1854, Effie could no longer stand the constant upbraiding and mental harassment; she fled back to her family, initiating a suit for annulment on the grounds that the marriage had never been consummated. Ruskin did not contest the suit. Two years later, Effie married the painter John Everett Millais, with whom she had a large family.
Freed from the constraints of married life, Ruskin returned to his parents’ home and resumed work on Modern Painters. The third volume appeared in January, 1856; the fourth followed in April. In these books, Ruskin stated clearly his belief that great art can be produced only by men who feel acutely and nobly. At the same time, he began developing what was to become an important thesis in his later works: the inextricable.

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John Ruskin 1819-1900
English critic, essayist, historian, nonfiction writer, poet, novella writer, autobiographer, and diarist. The following entry provides an overview of Ruskin's career. For further information on Ruskin's life and works, see TCLC, Volume 20.
Endowed with a passion for reforming what he considered his "blind and wandering fellow-men" and convinced that he had "perfect judgment" in aesthetic matters, Ruskin was the author of over forty books and several hundred essays and lectures that expounded his theories of aesthetics, morality, history, economics, and social reform. Although his views were often controversial and critical reception of his works was frequently hostile, Ruskin became one of the Victorian era's most prominent and influential critics of art and society, and his admirers have included such figures as Leo Tolstoy and Mohandas K. Gandhi. Ruskin is also considered one of the greatest prose stylists in the English language and is perhaps as well known today for the eloquence of his prose as for its substance.
Biographical Information
Ruskin was the only child of a wealthy London wine merchant and his wife. From an early age he was dominated by his mother, a devout Puritan and strict disciplinarian who was responsible for much of his early education. Her emphasis on Bible study played a prominent role in the formation of Ruskin's prose style as well as his moral thought. A precocious child, Ruskin began studying Latin at the age of seven and Greek shortly thereafter in preparation for what his parents hoped would be a career in the ministry. The elder Ruskins were excessively protective of their son's moral and physical well-being and demanded much of him. According to biographers, Ruskin's interest in art dates from his thirteenth birthday, when he was given a copy of Samuel Rogers's poem "Italy," with illustrations by J. M. W. Turner. Captivated by Turner's depictions of nature, Ruskin conceived what became a lifelong fascination for both landscape painting and Turner's art. Four years later, in 1836, a vicious review of Turner's latest works prompted Ruskin to write an eloquent defense of the artist, but at Turner's request the manuscript was not submitted for publication.
In the fall of 1836 Ruskin left home and entered Oxford University. He graduated in 1842, and in that same year a further attack on Turner's work prompted Ruskin to compose a second defense of the artist. Although he envisioned the work as a brief pamphlet similar to the essay of 1836, Ruskin found himself unable to limit his argument and the pamphlet gradually developed into a lengthy treatise on art and taste. Published in 1843 as Modern Painters: Their Superiority in the Art of Landscape Painting to the Ancient Masters, the work sold slowly but received praise from such prominent literary figures as Elizabeth Browning, Charlotte Bronte, Walt Whitman, and William Wordsworth, and launched Ruskin's career as an art critic. In order to elaborate the argument begun in Modern Painters, he published Modern Painters II in 1846, followed in rapid succession by five volumes of architectural studies, two more volumes of Modern Painters,and numerous minor works. According to R. H. Wilenski, Ruskin's works of the 1840s and 1850s were generally disparaged by leading artists and architects, who considered Ruskin a pretentious dilettante whose enthusiasm and eloquence were insufficient to offset the amateurish quality of his aesthetic judgments. Undaunted by their criticism, however, Ruskin continued to write prolifically on aesthetic subjects, and his works gained a small following among the cultured public.
During the late 1850s the focus of Ruskin's works gradually shifted from aesthetics to social problems. According to biographers, the sense of mission instilled in Ruskin as a child endowed even his aesthetic studies with an overriding moral purpose, and led him to question the justifiability of the study of art "while the earth is failing under our feet, and our fellows are departing every instant into eternal pain." His writings of the late 1850s and the 1860s are dominated by the problems of the underprivileged, the elderly, and the working class, and by proposals for the amelioration of social and economic inequities. During this period he also taught at Frederick D. Maurice's Working Men's College, became a popular public lecturer, and wrote prolifically on numerous subjects, including art, mythology, education, war, law, geology, botany, and ornithology.
Commentators have observed in Ruskin's writings of the 1860s an increasing diffuseness, which they attribute to emotional distress resulting from failures and frustrations in his personal life. Although married in 1848, Ruskin remained under the domination of his parents, and his inability to assert his independence from them contributed to the discord that beset his marriage. At his wife's request the marriage was annulled in 1854 on the grounds of Ruskin's impotence, causing a minor public scandal. Five years later Ruskin fell in love with eleven-year-old Rose La Touche, a physically weak, mentally unstable, and fanatically devout child who repeatedly rejected Ruskin as a suitor over the course of the next sixteen years, but for whom Ruskin harbored an obsessive passion long after her death at the age of twenty-seven. As Ruskin's emotional distress intensified, his writings and lectures became more personal, fragmented, and at times nearly incoherent, and by the end of the 1860s he had begun to fear insanity.
In 1870, through the intervention of friends, Ruskin was elected Slade Professor of Fine Art at Oxford University. Although pleased with the position, which he felt elevated him from amateur to official status in the art world, Ruskin continued to question the social and moral value of the study of art. In what he considered atonement for his continued work in aesthetics, Ruskin began Fors Clavigera: Letters to the Workmen and Labourers of Great Britain, a series of monthly "letters" through which he sought to instigate social action and which he used to publicize his Guild of St. George, a utopian organization devoted to "the health, wealth, and long life of the British nation." Although few reforms were effected by the group, both the Guild and Fors Clavigera attracted a great deal of attention, and the increasing eccentricity of Ruskin's behavior established an image in the public mind of a mad prophet and literary genius. During the last decades of his life Ruskin acquired a large following. In 1878 he suffered a severe mental breakdown, followed by a series of delusions and obsessions that plagued him until his death. According to biographers his remaining years constituted a struggle to write during periods of lucidity, which alternated with bouts of madness. After spending the last decade of his life in seclusion, Ruskin died in 1900.
Major Works
The dominant tone of Ruskin's writings on art and architecture was established in The Poetry of Architecture, a series of articles published while he was a student at Oxford, in which he wrote: "Our object, let it always be remembered, is not the attainment of architectural data, but the formation of taste." The Poetry of Architecture also introduced Ruskin's concept of an intrinsic relationship between art and morality, which formed the basis of the doctrines developed in his most important study of aesthetics, Modern Painters. In Ruskin's view, moral virtue and beauty were inseparable, and the success of a work of art was at least partially a reflection of the integrity of the artist. Critics often cite Modern Painters for intentional digressions from the subject of Turner's artwork to such topics as the nature of truth and beauty and for the internal contradictions arising from the evolution of author's thought during the work's eighteen-year composition. Critics also object to contradictions in the work resulting from Ruskin's apparent compulsion to legitimize his personal aesthetic prejudices through elaborate theoretical justifications. At the same time, at least one critic attributes the strength of Ruskin's works to the apparent chaos other critics find so repellent in Modern Painters. Robert Hewisohn asserts that "it is precisely his refusal to distinguish between the normally accepted divisions of thought—aesthetic, ethical, social, economic, philosophical and personal—that is the source of his most important insights."
Like Modern Painters, Ruskin's architectural writings are primarily moralistic in nature, arguing that a structure is not only a reflection of the architect's moral state but also of the morality of the era in which it was built. His most famous study of architecture, The Stones of Venice, traces the history of the city in order to demonstrate the effect of national morality on the evolution of art. According to Ruskin, the book had "no other aim than to show that the Gothic architecture of Venice had arisen out of… a state of pure national faith, and of domestic virtue, and that its Renaissance architecture had arisen out of…a state of concealed national infidelity, and of domestic corruption." Commentators observe that Ruskin's architectural writings are almost exclusively concerned with areas of his particular interest or expertise. As a result, some scholars criticize these works for their excessive preoccupation with such architectural styles as Venetian Gothic and such elements as ornamentation. Others, however, applaud Ruskin's attempt to relate a society's art to its beliefs and values, and consider The Stones of Venice both Ruskin's greatest work and one of the most significant studies of architecture written during the Victorian era.
Ruskin's writings on economics are similarly valued for their moral force, rather than for their importance to the study of political economy. Unschooled in economics Ruskin based his economic theories on the same moral principles as those on which he based his aesthetic theories. Ruskin's economic works are often criticized for their basis in untenable analogies between the economics of an estate and those of a nation, as well as for the same disorder and illogic that mar his aesthetic writings. Critical reception of these works at the time of their publication was universally hostile and initial sales were poor; however, Ruskin's writings on economics gradually gained popularity and eventually came to exert a strong influence on public thought. Today critics credit these works with helping to raise the social consciousness of Victorian readers and economists.


Although his social, aesthetic, and economic theories were oftencriticized by experts in those fields, Ruskin was the most widely read art and social critic of the Victorian era. His ideas influenced some of the most prominent figures of his time, including Bernard Shaw, William Morris, and Gandhi, who asserted that Unto This Last "brought about an instantaneous and practical transformation in my life." Critics today consider Ruskin one of the most perceptive social and cultural observers of his era, and praise his organic vision of art and life. According to Kirchhoff, Ruskin "teaches a way of thinking that not only bridges intellectual disciplines, but fuses intellect with perception and feeling." The conflicting characteristics of Ruskin's works—which have been lauded and disparaged with equal enthusiasm by critics for over a century—have been accurately summarized by Marcel Proust, who wrote that although Ruskin's writings are "often stupid, fanatical, exasperating, false, and irritating," they are also "always praiseworthy and always great."


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πŸ‘‰πŸ»✍🏿Education and Discipline" - Critical Summary
Introduction
The essay “Education and Discipline” by the Nobel laureate Bertrand Russell, was first published in his collection of essays titled, In Praise of Idleness, in 1935. Educational theories generally focus on how learning occurs, and they seek to understand, analyse, and prescribe educational practices. According to Bertrand Russell, the real purpose of education is civilisation, which includes both individual and social aspects. On the individual front, it consists of intellectual and moral qualities, and, on the moral front, it consists of the virtues of impartiality, kindliness, and self-control. Moreover, civilisation also demands respect for the law, and the intelligent adaptation of means to the ends. If this is the purpose of education, then psychologists should consider how to realise them, and analyse the degree of freedom that is essential to make it more effective.
Three Main Schools of Thought on Freedom:
As far as the question of freedom in education is concerned, there are three main schools of thought. The first school of thought says that children should be completely free, however bad they may be. The second school of thought says that children should be completely subject to authority.The third school of thought says that children should be free, but in spite of freedom, they should be always good. According to Russell, complete liberty to the child, ignores the importance of knowledge to the child, and also the positive purpose of education.
At the same time, he also believes that, authoritative education turns the students into timid tyrants, incapable of either claiming or tolerating originality in word or deed. Too much authoritarianism can also lead to over-submissive and timid children or it can also make them rebels. Thus there is danger in both the extremes of liberty and authority.
The Need of the Hour in Education:
Hence, what is wanted is neither submissiveness nor rebellion, but good nature and general friendliness both to people and to new ideas. By developing children with “good nature” Russell stresses on the importance of raising students who can be well-adapted and self-content in their later life. This requires a balance between cultivating the child’s individuality and preparing him/her to be a social being.
Educationists all over the world rarely recognise this conflict. While the famous educationist John Dewey overemphasised socialisation, Montessori, overemphasised on individualisation. The more individualised you are, the less socialised you become, and vice versa. But, according to Russell, ideally, individuality and sociality can and should peacefully coexist in the same individual.
Individual and Social function of the Child:
Educational theorists should strive to give an education that teaches children to be independent but also carry the wisdom to know how to do this as a social being. Hence, it is important to recognise that being a well-functioning adult requires individual authenticity and an ability to function in society.
Conclusion:
To achieve this fine balance, as far as children’s education is concerned, we require teachers who develop spontaneous pleasure in the presence of children, without any ulterior purpose. Unfortunately, it is utterly impossible for over-worked teachers to preserve an instinctive liking for children. Hence, education should be undertaken for at most two hours a day by teachers, whose remaining hours should be spent away from children. Spontaneous love for children, produces the right impulse to treat naughty children, and the child feels easy to respond, if they feel that you like them. Hence, Russell concludes by saying that, no rule, however wise, can be a substitute for affection and tact, while dealing with children.
THE ESL ACADEMY BYSIRRANA


450-1066: Old English (or Anglo-Saxon) Period
1066-1500: Middle English Period
1500-1660: The Renaissance
1558-1603: Elizabethan Age
1603-1625: Jacobean Age
1625-1649: Caroline Age
1649-1660: Commonwealth Period (or Puritan Interregnum)
1660-1785: The Neoclassical Period
1660-1700: The Restoration
1700-1745: The Augustan Age (or Age of Pope)
1745-1785: The Age of Sensibility (or Age of Johnson)
1785-1830: The Romantic Period
1832-1901: The Victorian Period
1848-1860: The Pre-Raphaelites
1880-1901: Aestheticism and Decadence
1901-1914: The Edwardian Period
1910-1936: The Georgian Period
1914-1945: The Modern Period
1945-present: Postmodern Period
Periods of American Literature:
1607-1776: Colonial Period
1765-1790: The Revolutionary Age
1775-1828: The Early National Period
1828-1865: The Romantic Period (Also known as: The American Renaissance or The Age of Transcendentalism)
1865-1900: The Realistic Period
1900-1914: The Naturalistic Period
1914-1939: American Modernist Period
1920s: Jazz Age, Harlem Renaissance
1920s, 1930s: The "Lost Generation"
1939-present: The Contemporary Period
1950s: Beat Writers
1960s, 1970s: Counterculture
In addition, American Literature recognizes works of:
African-American Writers
Native American Writers
Asian-American Writers

Tuesday 27 March 2018

University of the Punjab has divided MA English Examinations in two parts i.e. Part One and Part Two. A student cannot appear in combined exams i.e. MA part 1 and 2 cannot be taken up for exams together. A studen must pass Part I before appearing in the 2nd part of MA English. However, supplementary candidates are allowed to appear in MA Part 2 exams. Below2 is the details of MA Part two Exam papers. Keep in mind that Part two exam consists of 4 compulosry while 1 electice paper. The details of Compulsory and Elective papers is given below: Appendix A: Outline of MA English Part Two Compulsory Papers and Books. Paper No. Paper Name Marks Paper I Poetry II 100 Paper II Drama II 100 Paper III Novel III 100 Paper IV Literary Criticism 100 Appendix A: MA English Part two Optional Papers. At least one paper is mandatory from below appended list of papers. Paper No. Paper Name Marks Paper V Short Stories 100 Paper VI Literature in English Around the World 100 Paper VII Linguistics 100 Paper VIII Essay 100 Total Marks: 500 Appendix B: Details of MA English Part II Papers with Author Names Paper I: Poetry II 1.Blake: A Selection from Songs of Innocence & Experience i) Auguries of Innocence ii) The Sick Rose iii) London iv) A Poison Tree v) A Divine Image vi) From Milton: And Did Those Feet vii) Holy Thursday (I) viii) The Tyger ix) Ah, Sun Flower x) Holy Thursday (II) 2. Coleridge: The Ancient Mariner Kubla Khan Dejection: An Ode 3. Keats: Hyperion Book I Ode to Autumn Ode to a Nightingale Ode on a Grecian Urn 4. Philip Larkin: Mr. Bleaney Church Going Ambulances 1914 5. Seamus Heaney: Personal Helicon Tolland Man A Constable Calls Toome Road Casting and Gathering 6. Ted Hughes: Thought Fox Chances That Morning Full Moon and Freida Paper II: Drama II 1. Ibsen: Hedda Gabler 2. Chekov: The Cherry Orchard 3. Brecht: Galileo Galili 4. Beckett:Waiting for Godot 5. Edward Bond: The Sea Paper III: Novel II 1. Conrad: Heart of Darkness 2. Joyce: Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man 3. Woolf: To the Lighthouse 4. Achebe: Things Fall Apart 5. Ahmad Ali: Twilight in Delhi Paper IV: (Literary Criticism) Practical Criticism 1. Aristotle: Poetics 2. Raymond William's: Modern Tragedy 3. Catherine Belsey: Critical Practice 4. T.S. Eliot: Tradition and the Individual Talent 5. Philip Sidney: Apology for Poetry Optional Papers Paper V: Short Stories 1. Sara Suleri: The Property of Women 2. Naguib Mahfuz: The Mummy 3. E.Allen Poe: The Man of the Crowd 4. Doris Lessing: African Short Story 5. Flannery O'Connor: Everything that Rises Must Converge 6. J.Joyce: The Dead 7. Nadine Gordimer: Ultimate Safari Once upon a time 8. Kafka: The Judgement 9. Achebe: Civil Peace 10. Okri: What the Tapster Saw 11. Hanif Qureshi: My Son the Fanatic 12. D.H.Lawrence: The Man who Loved Islands 13. W.Trevor: The Day 14. AliceWalker: Strong Horse Tea 15. V.S. Pritchett: The Voice 16. Brian Friel: The Diviner 17. H.E. Bates: The Woman who Loved Imagination 18. Ali Mazuri: The Fort 19. Amy Tan : The Voice from the Wall 20. A.Chekov: The Man who lived in a Shell 21. Braithwaite: Dream Hatii 22. V.S. Naipaul: The Nightwatchman's Occurrence Book 23. E. Hemingway: A Clean Well Lighted Place PAPER VI: (Literature in English Around the World) Drama 1. Lorca: House of Bernada Alba 2. Brian Friel: Translations Novel 1.Nugugi: The River Between 2. Solzhynetsin: A Day in the life of Ivan Denisovitch Poetry 1. Taufiq Rafat: Thinking of Mohenjodaro The Stone Chat The Last Visit 2. Daud Kamal:Reproduction The Street of Nightingale A Remote Beginning 3. Maki Qureshi:Air Raid Kite Christmas Letter to my Sister 4. A. Hashmi:Encounter with the Sirens Autumnal But Where is the Sky? 5. Zulfiqar Ghose: Across India February 1952 The Mystique of Root A Memory of Asia 6. Shirley Lim: Monsoon History Modern Secrets 7. Vikram Seth:Humble Administrators Garden 8. Anna Akhmatova:Prologue Epilogue 9. Derek Walcott: Far Cry From Africa 10. Ben Okri: African Elegy 11. Achebe: Refugee Mother & Child Mango Seed 12. Nasim Ezekiel: Night of the Scorpion Goodbye Party for Miss Pushpa 13. Moniza AlviThe Country at my Shoulder Paper VII (Linguistics) Introduction Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Stylistics. Paper VIII: (Essay) Essay
THE ESL ACADEMY BY SIRRANA

THE REVIEW OF SIR RUSSELL ESSAYS



Bertrand Russell and his works overview
...............join to learn
Controversial philosopher and Nobel Prize winner (for Literature) Lord Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) gives us thirteen scintillating essays on which to whet our intellectual appetites. These short essays were written between 1925 and 1935.
Russell writes in an elegant, readable and understandable style. His arguments are well thought out.
The essays consider social questions not discussed in politics. The general theme that ties these essays together is that the world suffers from dogmatism and narrowness; what is needed is the willingness to question dogma.
The essays are a blend of philosophy with other disciplines such as psychology, economics, science, and history. All the essays are brutally honest and forthright. Each essay is packed with a load of wisdom. What's amazing is that these essays are as current today as when they were first written and they will probably remain relevant into the future.
My five favorite essays in this collection include the following:
(1) "In Praise of Idleness." Discusses work and the importance of leisure. In order to get a sample of Russell's insight that permeates this book, here's a sentence from this essay: "The morality of work is the morality of slaves, and the modern world has no need of slavery."
(2) "'Useless' Knowledge." States that all knowledge is useful not only knowledge that has a practical value.
(3) "The Case for Socialism." Russell gives nine arguments in favor of socialism, most notably the need for preventing war.
(4) "Western Civilization." Discusses its characteristics. One sentence from this essay that I like is, "I cannot escape from the conclusion that the great ages of progress have depended upon a small number of individuals of transcendent utility."
(5) "Education and Discipline." My favorite sentence from this essay is as follows: "Education...must be something more positive than a mere opportunity for growth...it must...also provide a mental and moral equipment [for] children."
In conclusion, this book is Bertrand Russell at his best. Enjoy!!
THE ESL ACADEMY BY SIRRANA

PUNJAB UNIVERSITY LAHORE

MA ENGLISH PART 1 COURSE


SIRRANA


Course Outline Part 1

M.A. (English) Part I Examination

(Outlines of Tests) Marks

Paper I (Classical Poetry) 100

Paper II (Drama) 100

Paper III (Novel) 100

Paper IV (Prose) 100

Paper V (American Literature) 100

Total 500 (Syllabus and course of reading)

Paper I: (Classical Poetry) 

1. Chaucer The Prologue

2. Milton Paradise Lost Books I & Book IX

3. Donne Love/Divine Poems

4. Pope The Rape of the Lock.

5. Wyatt
  • The Long Love That in My Thought Doth Harbor,
  • Whose List to Hunt, Madam Withouen Many Words,
  • They Flee from Me. Is it Possible Forget Not Yet,
  • What should I say Stand who so list.

6. Surrey
  • My Friend the Things That Do Attain Love,
  • That Doth Reign and Live Within My Thought,
  • So Cruel Prison,
  • Wyatt Resteth Here.
Paper II: (Drama) 

1. Sophocles Oedipus Rex

2. Marlowe Dr. Faustus

3. Shakespeare
  • Othello
  • The Winter’s Tale

4. Wilde The Importance of Being Earnest

Paper III: (Novel) 

1. Trollope Barchester Towers

2. Jane Austen Pride & Prejudice

3. G. Eliot Adam Bede

4. Dickens A Tale of Two Cities

5. Hardy The Return of the Native

Paper IV: (Prose)

1. Bacon Essays:
  • Of Truth
  • Of Death
  • Of Revenge
  • Of Adversities
  • Of Simulation and Dissimulation
  • Of Parents and Children
  • Of Great Place
  • Of Nobilitie
  • Of Superstition
  • Of Friendship
  • Of Ambition
  • Of Studies

2. Jonathan Swift Gulliver’s Travels

3. Bertrand Russell Unpopular Essays

4. Edward Said Only the introduction to the book entitled “Culture and Imperialism”

5. Seamus Heaney Only the essay “The Redress of Poetry” from the book entitled The Redress of Poetry

Paper V: (American Literature) 

Poetry

1. Adrienne Rich
  • Diving into the Wreck
  • Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers
  • Final Notation Gabriel

2. Sylvia Plath
  • Ariel
  • Morning Song
  • Poppies in October
  • The Bee Meeting
  • The Arrival of the Bee Box
  • Your

3. Richard Wilbur
  • Still Citizen Sparrow
  • After the last Bulletin
  • Marginalia

4. John Ashbury
  • Melodic Train
  • Painter
Drama

1. O’Neil Mourning becomes Electra (only the First of the Trilogy which is titled
‘The Home Coming’ is included in the M.A. Syllabus)

2. Miller The Crucible
Novel
1. Ernest Hemingway For whom the Bell Tolls
2. Toni Morrison Jazz

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