How do you write in reference to context?

How do you write in reference to context?

How do you write in reference to context?

Often, a reference to context involves an explanation of a quote. Examples of providing context include discussing what leads to the quote, what the quote itself means, what it reveals about the story, and what it could mean for the rest of the story, as well.

1 Writing Reference to the Context

Step-I
Begin by mentioning the name of the poem and the poet of that particular poem.

For example:
These lines have been taken from the poem ___ written by _____.
or
This is an extract from the poem ______ written by ______.
or
These lines occur in the poem ____written by ___.

Step-II
* Briefly describe the context/situation in which the chosen lines occur.
* Identify the order/place in the poem i.e., whether the lines under reference happen to be the opening or concluding lines, whether it is the first stanza or the last stanza or it occurs in the middle of the poem.
* Identify the form of the poem whether it is a sonnet, lyric, dramatic monologue, ode or ballad etc. You may incorporate this information while referring to the context of the given passage e.g.; This is the first/second etc. stanza of the sonnet/lyric etc.

Important points to remember
* You should be able to identify the poem, name the poet and locate the passage in the poem.

2 Writing Explanation

Step-I
* Give a simple and brief meaning of the passage.
* Look for the hidden meaning conveyed through poetic devices. Make a mention of similes symbols, metaphor, personification, imagery etc. if any used by the poet in the given lines.

Step-II
* Bring out the meaning of these poetic devices.

Step-III
* Relate the underlying relevance and beauty of these poetic features by way of commenting on their effect in the poem.

There is a difference between writing with reference to "text" and writing with "reference to context."

Writing with reference to text means you will provide evidence, in the form of quotations from the text being discussed, that supports your analysis, arguments and assertions. Writing with reference to text is proving that your statements are logically founded in the text as written, proving that you are not misinterpreting or misunderstanding the text you've read and analyzed.

Contrastingly, writing with reference to context means to locate a quotation in relation to a given work ( recognize the work a given quotation is extracted from, and can you say what kind of work it is, who wrote it and where the quotation is found).

Writing with reference to context requires that you briefly relate the meaning of the work as a whole and then relate the meaning of the quotation, and it requires that your comment on meaning be built upon the figurative devices that underlie the deep meaning of the quotation. It is clear, then, that referencing text and referencing context are not the same technique, nor do they fulfill the same functions.

All Works Of Mr. William Shakespeare
The Greatest English Dramatist and Poet (1564-1616)

AIO Theme: Romeo and Juliet

Includes:

A- Comedies:

01- The Comedy of Errors (1592-1594)
02- The Taming of the Shrew (1593-1594)
03- The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1594)
04- Love s Labor s Lost (1594-1597)
05- A Midsummer-Night s Dream (1595-1596)
06- The Merchant of Venice (1596-1597)
07- The Merry Wives of Windsor (1597-1601)
08- Much Ado About Nothing (1598-1599)
09- As You Like It (1599)
10- Twelfth Night; or What You Will (1601-1602)
11- Troilus and Cressida (1601-1602)
12- All s Well that Ends Well (1601-1602)
13- Measure for Measure (1604)

B- Histories:

14- The First Part of King Henry VI (1589-1590)
15- The Second Part of King Henry VI (1590-1591)
16- The Third Part of King Henry VI (1590-1591)
17- The Tragedy of Richard the Third (1592-1593)
18- The Life and Death of King John (1594-1596)
19- The Tragedy of King Richard II (1593-1594)
20- The First Part of King Henry IV (1596-1597)
21- The Second Part of King Henry IV (1598)
22- The Life of King Henry V (1599)
23- The Famous History of the Life of Henry the Eighth (1612-1613)

C- Tragedies:

24- Titus Andronicus (1593-1594)
25- Romeo and Juliet (1595-1596)
26- Julius Caesar (1599)
27- Hamlet, Prince of Denmark (1600-1601)
28- Othello, the Moor of Venice (1604)
29- King Lear (1605)
30- Macbeth (1606)
31- Antony and Cleopatra (1606)
32- Coriolanus (1607-1608)
33- Timon of Athens (1607-1608)

D- Romances:

34- Pericles (1607-1608)
35- Cymbeline (1609-1610)
36- The Winter s Tale (1610-1611)
37- The Tempest (1611)

E- Poems:

38- Venus and Adonis (1592-1593)
39- The Rape of Lucrece (1593-1594)
40- Sonnets (1593-1599)
41- A Lover s Complaint (1609)
42- The Passionate Pilgrim (1599)

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ROMANTICISM and Romantic Age..
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🍁Romanticism (also known as the Romantic era) was an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850.

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👉🏼Background

Romanticism is the name given to a dominant movement in literature and the other arts – particularly music and painting – in the the period from the 1770s to the mid-nineteenth century:

It is regarded as having transformed artistic styles and practices
Like many other terms applied to movements in the arts, the word covers a wide and varied range of artists and practices
It is a retrospective term, applied by later literary, art and musical historians. None of the artists we refer to as Romantics would have so described themselves
It was a European phenomenon, particularly powerful in Britain, France and Germany, but also affecting countries such as Italy, Spain and Poland. There was also, to some extent, an American version of the movement.
Reaction to earlier age

Like many other literary movements, it developed in reaction to the dominant style of the preceding period:

The eighteenth century is often described by literary historians as the Augustan Age  because it sought to emulate the culture of the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE)
Classical standards of order, harmony, proportion and objectivity were preferred – the period saw a revival of interest in classical architecture, for instance
In literature, Greek and Roman authors were taken as models and many eighteenth century writers either translated or produced imitations of poetry in classical forms
In its early years, Romanticism was associated with radical and revolutionary political ideologies, again in reaction against the generally conservative mood of European society.
Main features

Central features of Romanticism include:

An emphasis on emotional and imaginative spontaneity
The importance of self-expression and individual feeling. Romantic poetry is one of the heart and the emotions, exploring the ‘truth of the imagination' rather than scientific truth. The ‘I' voice is central; it is the poet's perceptions and feelings that matter.
An almost religious response to nature. They were concerned that Nature should not just be seen scientifically but as a living force, either made by a Creator, or as in some way divine, to be neglected at humankind's peril. Some of them were no longer Christian in their beliefs. Shelley was an atheist, and for a while Wordsworth was apantheist (the belief that god is in everything). Much of their poetry celebrated the beauty of nature, or protested the ugliness of the growing industrialization of the century: the machines, factories, slum conditions, pollution and so on.
A capacity for wonder and consequently a reverence for the freshness and innocence of the vision of childhood. See The world of the Romantics: Attitudes to childhood
Emphasis on the imagination as a positive and creative faculty
An interest in ‘primitive' forms of art – for instance in the work of early poets (bards), in ancient ballads and folksongs. Some of the Romantics turned back to past times to find inspiration, either to the medieval period, or to Greek and Roman mythology. See Aspects of the Gothic: Gothic and the medieval revival
An interest in and concern for the outcasts of society: tramps, beggars, obsessive characters and the poor and disregarded are especially evident in Romantic poetry
An idea of the poet as a visionary figure, with an important role to play as prophet (in both political and religious terms).

🍁Who were the Romantics?

Some authors have been regarded as pre-Romantic:

William Blake (1757-1827) a visionary poet who was also an artist and engraver, with a particular interest in childhood and a strong hatred of mechanical reason and industrialization;
Robert

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👉🏼What are the main characteristics of Romanticism?
Some of the main characteristics of Romantic literature include a focus on the writer or narrator's emotions and inner world; celebration of nature, beauty, and imagination; rejection of industrialization, organized  religion, rationalism, and social convention; idealization of women, children, and rural life; inclusion ...

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👉🏼Characteristics of the Romantic Age & Romantic Literature

1. Individuality/Democracy/Personal Freedom

2. Spiritual/Supernatural Elements

3. Nature as a Teacher

4. Interest in Past History/Ancient Greek and Roman Elements

5. Celebration of the Simple Life

6. Interest in the Rustic/Pastoral Life

7. Interest in Folk Traditions

8. Use of Common Language

9. Use of Common Subjects

10. One Sided/Opinionated

11. Idealized Women

12. Frequent Use of Personification

13. Examination of the Poet's Inner Feelings

👉🏼Some of the main characteristics of Romantic literature include a focus on the writer or narrator’s emotions and inner world; celebration of nature, beauty, and imagination; rejection of industrialization, organized religion, rationalism, and social convention; idealization of women, children, and rural life; inclusion of supernatural or mythological elements; interest in the past; frequent use of personification; experimental use of language and verse forms, including blank verse; and emphasis on individual experience of the "sublime."..


👉🏼One of the most significant aspects of Romanticism was its emphasis on the strange and the mysterious. To a large extent, Romanticism was a reaction against the rationalism of the Enlightenment, which had privileged reason as a source of knowledge about ourselves and the world around us. Most Romantics welcomed the progress that the Enlightenment had made in getting rid of some of the fanaticism, superstition, and obscurantism—the deliberate withholding of knowledge from people—associated with various pre-modern authorities, most notably the Catholic Church.

Yet there was also a widespread consensus among Romantics that the Enlightenment had gone too far in its project of disenchanting the world. Even with all the huge strides that had been made in natural science, Romantics insisted that there was a still a lot about the world that we could not know and indeed never would.

The world was full of mystery, and Romantic art, in all its various forms, sought to explore this mystery in considerable depth. Whether it was through Gothic novels such as Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, the poems of Wordsworth (which presented nature as deeply infused with a sublime, almost supernatural force), or the spiritual landscapes of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich, Romantics wanted to draw our attention to a world of mystery, a world which stubbornly defied all attempts at categorization by the thinkers of the Enlightenment.


👉🏼First, we must separate “drama” from theatre – there was plenty of theatrical activity between, let us say, 1800 and 1850, but the plays of that era appealed to the crowds as entertainment, not art, and many were in the “Melodrama” category.  The Romantic literary spirit lent itself more to the "one narrator" form of verse, rather than the “no narrator” dramatic form, since it dealt with a personal response to natural events.  However, there were several products of Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, Wordsworth, etc. that were “dramatic” according to Aristotle’s definition; Coleridge’s Osorio or The Borderers, for example, and Prometheus Unbound  (Shelley).  Sometimes called “closet dramas,”  these pieces were not meant to be performed primarily, but to be read (sometimes aloud by amateurs in their parlors). Byron called it “mental theatre.”    They were written often based on the political unrest of the Revolutionary times in Ameri

Renaissance age and all about its features..
👉🏼In what country did the Renaissance began?
Italy
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that initially began in Florence, Italy, but later spread throughout Europe. It started around 1350 and ended around 1600. During the Renaissance (a word that means "rebirth"), people experienced changes in art, learning, and many other things.

👉🏼What was Renaissance literature about?
Renaissance literature refers to European literature which was influenced by the intellectual and cultural tendencies associated with the Renaissance. ... For the writers of the Renaissance, Greco-Roman inspiration was shown both in the themes of their writing and in the literary forms they used.


👉🏼Renaissance literature started with a renewed interest in the classical Greek and Roman learning. The invention of the printing press and the weakening of the Catholic Church's influence on the daily lives of the people, among other things, enabled Renaissance writers to express their beliefs in new ways.


👉🏼The literature and poetry of the Renaissance  was largely influenced by the developing science and philosophy. The Humanist Francesco Petrarch, a key figure in the renewed sense of scholarship, was also an accomplished poet, publishing several important works of poetry in Italian as well as Latin.


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The Renaissance was important because it ushered in many changes, particularly in European art and culture.

The Renaissance is generally understood to be the art, literature and culture accumulated in the 14th to 16th centuries. Hence some of the most important people during the Renaissance were artists, thinkers and writers - contributors to culture, if you will.

Famous, highly influential artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Botticelli, Raphael and Donatello were born, lived, worked and died during this era.

Galileo, Shakespeare, Erasmus and Columbus were also influential figures of the Renaissance.

Together, these people ushered in new ideas about discovery, travel, invention, art, philosophy and the world.

This is why the Renaissance was so important. Not necessarily because of the political and social events of the time, but rather because of the huge cultural influences the Renaissance’s figures had on society.

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Renaissance began in the Tuscan region of Italy. Classical ideas were rediscovered and spread, including the old Greek idea of the scientific method. Books and writing became more common with the invention of the printing press, as a consequence more people had a desire to learn to read. People began to understand that the world could be seen separately from religion( the church tried very hard to stop this) and knowledge improved. As monarchs read about the kings and emperors of old, who ruled with absolute power, they began to question why they allowed feudal lords so much power in their lands. The decline of the feudal nobility led to a improvement in the lives of average people. Now they were treated like ignorant subjects of the crown who needed a firm guiding. A hand always looking for tax money. But that is still better then being a virtual slave. So in short the renaissance saw a return of knowledge and a measure of freedom to Europe as well as the beginnings of scientific progress and discover.
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The Humanism layed the foundation of the Renaissance . Francesco Petrarca the most preminent figure of Humanism , which discovered the Classic Man and the Classic World : the philosophers , the artists , the artworks , the sculptures of the ancient Greeks and Romans. In a world dominated by the religion obsession of the Middle Ages , the humanists found out that men of the past had been able to do great things and to achieve heights of thought . The Renaissance started in Italy , expecially in Florence (late 1300–1400) . In the painting Giotto is said to be the beginner , followed by Masaccio : the religion subjects are sti

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Neoclassical age

Augustan Age

Age of Johnson

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Neoclassical literature was written between 1660 and 1798. It was a time of both formality and artificiality. In this lesson, we will examine the characteristics and literature of this time period.
Definition
Neoclassical literature was written between 1660 and 1798. This time period is broken down into three parts: the Restoration period, the Augustan period, and the Age of Johnson.

Writers of the Neoclassical period tried to imitate the style of the Romans and Greeks. Thus the combination of the terms 'neo,' which means 'new,' and 'classical,' as in the day of the Roman and Greek classics. This was also the era of The Enlightenment, which emphasized logic and reason. It was preceded by The Renaissance and followed by the Romantic era. In fact, the Neoclassical period ended in 1798 when Wordsworth published the Romantic 'Lyrical Ballads'.


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Neoclassical Era
Understanding the Neoclassical era helps us better understand its literature. This was a time of comfortableness in England. People would meet at coffee houses to chat about politics, among other topics, and sometimes drink a new, warm beverage made of chocolate! It was also the beginning of the British tradition of drinking afternoon tea. And it was the starting point of the middle class, and because of that, more people were literate.

People were very interested in appearances, but not necessarily in being genuine. Men and women commonly wore wigs, and being clever and witty was in vogue. Having good manners and doing the right thing, particularly in public, was essential. It was a time, too, of British political upheaval as eight monarchs took the throne.

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👉🏼Characteristics of Neoclassical Literature
Neoclassical literature is characterized by order, accuracy, and structure. In direct opposition to Renaissance attitudes, where man was seen as basically good, the Neoclassical writers portrayed man as inherently flawed. They emphasized restraint, self-control, and common sense. This was a time when conservatism flourished in both politics and literature.

Some popular types of literature included:
👉🏼👉🏼👇🏻👇🏻
Parody
Essays
Satire
Letters
Fables
Melodrama,

and
Rhyming with couplets
👉🏼

Some popular types of literature included: parody, essays, satire, letters, fables, melodrama, and rhyming with couplets. 5. Three Stages The Neoclassical period of literature can be divided into three distinct stages: the Restoration Period, the Augustan Period, and the Age of Johnson.


👉🏼💐🌿Literature can be broadly divided into ages, starting from the middle ages, renaissance, neoclassical period, romantic period, modern period, to the post-modern period.


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👉🏼The neoclassical period of literature is also known as the Enlightenment Period.


👉🏼Neoclassical authors saw the world under a new light. Unlike the previous two eras, the writers of this era gave more importance to social needs as compared to individual needs. They believed that man can find meaning in society, religion, natural order, government, and literature. In no time, the winds of a new revolution swept through Europe and North America, and changed everything from art and literature to society and fashion, on its way. Though the neoclassical era later transitioned into the romantic era, it left behind a prominent footprint which can be seen in the literary works of today.


👉🏼The term neo means new while classical refers to the Roman and Greek classics, hence the name is aptly coined as neoclassical. Neoclassical literature emulated the Greek and Roman styles of writing

The neoclassical era was closely preceded by the renaissance period. Before the renaissance period, life and literature was mainly dictated by the Church. However, during renaissance, science and innovation

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👉🏼💐💐💐💐

Neoclassical age

Augustan Age

Age of Johnson

👉🏼👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻

Neoclassical literature was written between 1660 and 1798. It was a time of both formality and artificiality. In this lesson, we will examine the characteristics and literature of this time period.
Definition
Neoclassical literature was written between 1660 and 1798. This time period is broken down into three parts: the Restoration period, the Augustan period, and the Age of Johnson.

Writers of the Neoclassical period tried to imitate the style of the Romans and Greeks. Thus the combination of the terms 'neo,' which means 'new,' and 'classical,' as in the day of the Roman and Greek classics. This was also the era of The Enlightenment, which emphasized logic and reason. It was preceded by The Renaissance and followed by the Romantic era. In fact, the Neoclassical period ended in 1798 when Wordsworth published the Romantic 'Lyrical Ballads'.


👉🏼💐💐💐

Neoclassical Era
Understanding the Neoclassical era helps us better understand its literature. This was a time of comfortableness in England. People would meet at coffee houses to chat about politics, among other topics, and sometimes drink a new, warm beverage made of chocolate! It was also the beginning of the British tradition of drinking afternoon tea. And it was the starting point of the middle class, and because of that, more people were literate.

People were very interested in appearances, but not necessarily in being genuine. Men and women commonly wore wigs, and being clever and witty was in vogue. Having good manners and doing the right thing, particularly in public, was essential. It was a time, too, of British political upheaval as eight monarchs took the throne.

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👉🏼Characteristics of Neoclassical Literature
Neoclassical literature is characterized by order, accuracy, and structure. In direct opposition to Renaissance attitudes, where man was seen as basically good, the Neoclassical writers portrayed man as inherently flawed. They emphasized restraint, self-control, and common sense. This was a time when conservatism flourished in both politics and literature.

Some popular types of literature included:
👉🏼👉🏼👇🏻👇🏻
Parody
Essays
Satire
Letters
Fables
Melodrama,

and
Rhyming with couplets
👉🏼

Some popular types of literature included: parody, essays, satire, letters, fables, melodrama, and rhyming with couplets. 5. Three Stages The Neoclassical period of literature can be divided into three distinct stages: the Restoration Period, the Augustan Period, and the Age of Johnson.


👉🏼💐🌿Literature can be broadly divided into ages, starting from the middle ages, renaissance, neoclassical period, romantic period, modern period, to the post-modern period.


👉🏼👉🏼👉🏼👉🏼visitblog

Ranasirliterature.


👉🏼The neoclassical period of literature is also known as the Enlightenment Period.


👉🏼Neoclassical authors saw the world under a new light. Unlike the previous two eras, the writers of this era gave more importance to social needs as compared to individual needs. They believed that man can find meaning in society, religion, natural order, government, and literature. In no time, the winds of a new revolution swept through Europe and North America, and changed everything from art and literature to society and fashion, on its way. Though the neoclassical era later transitioned into the romantic era, it left behind a prominent footprint which can be seen in the literary works of today.


👉🏼The term neo means new while classical refers to the Roman and Greek classics, hence the name is aptly coined as neoclassical. Neoclassical literature emulated the Greek and Roman styles of writing

The neoclassical era was closely preceded by the renaissance period. Before the renaissance period, life and literature was mainly dictated by the Church. However, during renaissance, science and innovation

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🌹👉🏻*Poem
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*Phenomenal Woman by Maya Angelou*

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*English Literature and linguistics


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Pretty women wonder where my secret lies.
I'm not cute or built to suit a fashion model's size
But when I start to tell them,
They think I'm telling lies.
I say,
It's in the reach of my arms
The span of my hips,
The stride of my step,
The curl of my lips.
I'm a woman
Phenomenally.
Phenomenal woman,
That's me.

I walk into a room
Just as cool as you please,
And to a man,
The fellows stand or
Fall down on their knees.
Then they swarm around me,
A hive of honey bees.
I say,
It's the fire in my eyes,
And the flash of my teeth,
The swing in my waist,
And the joy in my feet.
I'm a woman
Phenomenally.
Phenomenal woman,
That's me.

Men themselves have wondered
What they see in me.
They try so much
But they can't touch
My inner mystery.
When I try to show them
They say they still can't see.
I say,
It's in the arch of my back,
The sun of my smile,
The ride of my breasts,
The grace of my style.
I'm a woman

Phenomenally.
Phenomenal woman,
That's me.

Now you understand
Just why my head's not bowed.
I don't shout or jump about
Or have to talk real loud.
When you see me passing
It ought to make you proud.
I say,
It's in the click of my heels,
The bend of my hair,
the palm of my hand,
The need of my care,
'Cause I'm a woman
Phenomenally.
Phenomenal woman,
That's me.

*Analysis of poem "Phenomenal Woman":*
The poem starts in a conversational fashion where a flock of women, intrigued by poet’s popularity amidst male suitors, want to know from her the secret of her success. Despite her strong refusal to fit into beauty paradigm, the poet gets maximum male attention. By her own admission, she is neither cute, nor she has a bottleneck figure. Her physical incongruity makes the questioning women more curious and they have a strong feeling that the poet conceals the secret of her success.
The poet proudly asserts that she is very happy with whatever she has and definitely is not going to take a plunge to beautify herself. Her real appearance, the reach of her arms, the span of her hips, and the curl of her lips make her such a phenomenal woman. What she intends to highlight is that there is no falsity about her appearance. She appears the way she exists. Such honesty of her appearance exudes tremendous confidence which makes men go. Every time she enters the room, she becomes the cynosure of present contingent of men. Helpless men used to stoop flock after her just the way bees swarm around their hive. Hive of honey bees is an interesting metaphor. As bees find shelter in a hive, helpless men seek refuge in the not-so-glamorous body of the poet.

Maya Angelou now takes initiative to decode the mystery further for the bewildering women. She is confident and that shows in spark of her eyes. She has a proud smile which exudes optimism. Her swinging waist and joyous feet show she is in firm control over the situation. This firmness, this confidence makes her a phenomenal woman who refuses to mould herself according to male desire. The repeated proud assertion of being a phenomenal woman is a celebration of womanhood.
Now, she remains a mystery to her male admirers. This ordinary looking woman sparks a desire in them and they fail to pin down the reason. Maya Angelou tries to reveal the mystery but the myopic men fail to see it. Actually, male doctrine believes in specificity. They cannot stand the idea of totality. When Maya Angelou’s entire appearance wins them over, they leave no stone unturned to fix a point. Male hegemony demands stability, a hierarchy of things which Maya Angelou’s body savagely defies. Her arch of the back, her glorious smile, rhyming motion of her breasts remains a jigsaw and single-minded men will never find the final piece of this jigsaw.The poet again reasserts her phenomenal existence. She says th

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MA ENGLISH PART 2

NOVEL

👉🏻Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Summary



👉🏻Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man takes place in Ireland at the turn of the century. Young Stephen Dedalus comes from an Irish Catholic family; he is the oldest of ten children, and his father is financially inept. Throughout the novel, the Dedalus family makes a series of moves into increasingly dilapidated homes as their fortunes dwindle. His mother is a devout Catholic. When Stephen is young, he and the other Dedalus children are tutored by the governess Dante, a fanatically Catholic woman. Their Uncle Charles also lives with the family. The book opens with stream of consciousness narrative filtered through a child's perspective; there is sensual imagery, and words approximating baby talk. We leap forward in time to see young Stephen beginning boarding school at Clongowes. He is very young, terribly homesick, un-athletic and socially awkward. He is an easy target for bullies, and one day he is pushed into a cesspool. He becomes ill from the filthy water, but he remembers what his father told him and doesn't tell on the boy. That Christmas, he eats at the adult table for the first time. A terrible argument erupts over politics, with John Casey and Stephen's father on one side and Dante on the other. Later that year, Stephen is unjustly hit by a prefect. He complains to the rector, winning the praises of his peers.

Stephen is forced to withdraw from Clongowes because of his family's poverty. The family moves to Blackrock, where Stephen takes long walks with Uncle Charles and goes on imaginary adventures with boys from around the neighbourhood. When Stephen is a bit older, the family moves to Dublin, once again because of financial difficulties. He meets a girl named Emma Clere, who is to be the object of his adoration right up until the end of the book. His father, with a bit of charm, manages to get Stephen back into private school. He is to go to Belvedere College, another institution run by the Jesuits.

👉🏻Stephen comes into his own at Belvedere, a reluctant leader and a success at acting and essay writing. Despite his position of leadership, he often feels quite isolated. He continues to be a sensitive and imaginative young man, acting in school plays and winning essay contests. He is also increasingly obsessed with sex; his fantasies grow more and more lurid. Finally, one night he goes with a prostitute. It is his first sexual experience.

Going with prostitutes becomes a habit. Stephen enters a period of spiritual confession. He considers his behavior sinful, but he feels oddly indifferent towards it. He cannot seem to stop going to prostitutes, nor does he want to stop. But during the annual spiritual retreat at Belvedere, he hears three fire sermons on the torments of hell. Stephen is terrified, and he repents of his old behavior. He becomes almost fanatically religious.

After a time, this feeling passes. He becomes increasingly frustrated by Catholic doctrine. When a rector suggests that he consider becoming a priest, Stephen realizes that it is not the life for him. One day, while walking on the beach, he sees a beautiful girl. Her beauty hits him with the force of spiritual revelation, and he no longer feels ashamed of admiring the body. He will live life to the fullest.

The next time we see Stephen, he is a student at university. University has provided valuable structure and new ideas to Stephen: in particular, he has had time to think about the works of Aquinas and Aristotle on the subject of beauty. Stephen has developed his own theory of aesthetics. He is increasingly preoccupied with beauty and art. Although he has no shortage of friends, he feels isolated. He has come to regard Ireland as a trap, and he realizes that he must escape the constraints of nation, family, and religion. He can only do that abroad. Stephen imagines his escape as something parallel to the flight of Dedal

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Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Themes


👉🏻🌹Entrapment and Constraint


Stephen eventually comes to see Ireland as a kind of trap, a restraint that will make it impossible for him to live and create. Three major bonds threaten: family, nation, and the Church. Stephen's family, increasingly destitute, is a source of frustration and guilt. He can do nothing to help them, and the continued ineptitude of his father exasperates Stephen. Though his father is an ardent nationalist, Stephen has great anxieties about Irish politics. He finds the Irish people fickle and ultimately disloyal; at one point, he says to a friend that the Irish have never had a great leader whom they did not betray or abandon. He also rebels against the nature of activities like petition-signing and protest; in his mind, these activities amount to an abdication of independence. At the same time, he leaves Ireland hoping to forge the new conscience of his race.


👉🏻Catholicism
The Church is perhaps the greatest constraint on Stephen, and merits its own entry. The teachings of the Church run contrary to Stephen's independent spirit and intellect. His sensitivity to beauty and the human body are not at all suitable to the rigid Catholicism in which he was raised. But the Church continues to exert some small hold on him. Although he eventually becomes an unbeliever, he continues to have some fear that the Catholic Church might be correct. Despite his fears, he eventually chooses to live independently and without constraint, even if that decision sends him to hell.



👉🏻Escape


Escape is the natural complement to the theme of Entrapment and Constraint. Joyce depicts escape metaphorically by the book's most important symbol and allusion: the mythical artificer Dedalus. Dedalus is not at all an Irish name; Joyce took the name from the mythical inventor who escaped from his island prison by constructing wings and flying to his freedom. Stephen, too, will eventually escape from the island prison of Ireland.



👉🏻Independence


Closely related to the above theme, Stephen's move towards independence is one of the central movements of the novel. When we first encounter Stephen as a young boy, his athletic ineptitude and sensitive nature make him an easy target for bullies. He is a rather shy and awkward boy. The contrast with the university student Stephen could not be greater. The older Stephen is fiercely independent, willing to risk eternal damnation to pursue his destiny. He is not cowed by anyone, and he will pursue life as an artist no matter what the cost.




Beauty, Sensitivity, and Imagination
What begins as sensitivity and imagination in the child Stephen eventually evolves into a near-obsessive contemplation of beauty and the mechanics of art. Even as a child, young Stephen is a extraordinarily imaginative and sensitive boy. Eventually, these strong but unarticulated feelings take shape as a passion for the arts. In Chapter 5, Stephen has developed a theory of aesthetics that is quite sophisticated for a university student; he thinks carefully and thoroughly about beauty and the power of art, and knows that he can do nothing else but pursue the life of a poet and writer.

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👉🏻Pu Part 2 Novel

👉🏻PAPER III (Novel)

1. HEART OF DARKNESS BY JOSEPH CONRAD
1. Major Themes in 'Heart of Darkness'
2. Symbolism in 'Heart of Darkness'
3. 'Heart of Darkness' As a Political Allegory
4. Is 'Heart of Darkness' Racist?
5. Symbolic Representation of Evil in 'Heart of Darkness'
6. Conrad's Art of Characterization
7. Character Sketch of Marlow
8. Character Sketch of Kurtz
Notes Prepared By: SirRana


👉🏻2. A PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A YOUNG MAN BY JOYCE


9. Major Themes in 'A Portrait of an Artist As a Young Man'
10. Significance of the Title 'A Portrait of an Artist As a Young Man'
11. James Joyce's Style and Technique
12. James Joyce's Art of Characterization
13. Epiphany in 'A Portrait of an Artist As a Young Man'
14. Use of Myth in 'A Portrait of an Artist As a Young Man'
15. Character Sketch of Stephen Dedalus
16. Stephen Dedalus' Theory of Aesthetics
Notes Prepared By: SirRana

👉🏻3. TO THE LIGHTHOUSE BY VIRGINIA WOOLF
17. Major Themes in 'To the Lighthouse'
18. Virginia Woolf As a Novelist
19. Structure of 'To the Lighthouse'
20. Symbolism in 'To the Lighthouse'
21. Stream of Consciousness in 'To the Lighthouse
22. Oedipal Struggle Between James and Mr. Ramsay
23. Character Sketch of Mrs. Ramsay
24. Character of Brisko and Importance of Her Paintings


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4. THINGS FALL APART BY CHINUA ACHEBE
25. Major Themes in 'Things Fall Apart'
26. Symbolic Significance of the Title 'Things Fall Apart'
27. 'Things Fall Apart' As a Tragedy
28. 'Things Fall Apart' As a Post-Colonial Novel
29. Conflicts in 'Things Fall Apart'
30. Female Characters in 'Things Fall Apart'
31. Okonkwo As a Tragic Hero
32. Comparison Between 'Heart of Darkness' and Things Fall Apart'
Notes Prepared By:  SirRana

👉🏻5. TWILIGHT IN DELHI BY AHMED ALI
33. Major Themes in 'Twilight in Delhi'
34. Symbolism in 'Twilight in Delhi'
35. Significance of the Title 'Twilight in Delhi'
36. Portrayal of Delhi and its People in 'Twilight in Delhi'
37. Ahmad Ali's Purpose of Writing  'Twilight in Delhi'
38. Ahmad Ali's Art of Characterization
39. Mir Nehal As a Symbol of Muslim Culture
40. Salient Features of Modern Novel


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PART 2

NOVEL
HEART OF DARKNESS BY JOSEPH CONARD..


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👉🏻How does Kurtz die in the heart of darkness?
By the time Marlow, the protagonist, sees Kurtz, he is ill with jungle fever and almost dead. Marlow seizes Kurtz and endeavors to take him back down the river in his steamboat. Kurtz dies on the boat with the last words, "The horror!

👉🏻At the beginning of the action in the novella, Marlow, the narrator, is confused about Kurtz and his motives. After he first arrives in Africa, he hears people who work for the ivory company tell a story in which Kurtz returns to his station, though it is bare of food. Marlow thinks of Kurtz: "I did not know the motive. Perhaps he was just simply a fine fellow who stuck to his work for its own sake" (page numbers vary by edition). At this point, Marlow believes that Kurtz is benevolent.

As he journeys towards Kurtz's inner station, Marlow finds Kurtz intriguing and puzzling. He comes upon a report Kurtz has written for the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs. At the end of this report, which is eloquent and altruistic towards the native Africans, Kurtz adds, "Exterminate all the brutes!" Marlow compares this statement to "a flash of lightning in a serene sky." At this point, Marlow is puzzled about why Kurtz would add this postscript to a report in which he has advocated benevolent treatment of African people.

In the end, Marlow knows that Kurtz is flawed and has elevated himself about the native people by pretending to be a deity. In the end, however, Marlow has undying dedication to Kurtz. As he says,

"He had summed up -- he had judged. `The horror!' He was a remarkable man. After all, this was the expression of some sort of belief; it had candour, it had conviction, it had a vibrating note of revolt in its whisper, it had the appalling face of a glimpsed truth -- the strange commingling of desire and hate" (page numbers vary by edition).

Marlow remains dedicated to Kurtz because he believes that Kurtz, whose last words were "the horror," understands the truth of what European colonization in Africa is truly like. He finds Kurtz "remarkable" and cannot shake his admiration of him, even though he knows that Kurtz in reality was far from perfect.


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👉🏻 Bivariable,univaiable and multivariable..

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👉🏻Like univariate analysis, bivariate analysis can be descriptive or inferential. It is the analysis of the relationship between the two variables. Bivariate analysis is a simple (two variable) special case of multivariate analysis (where multiple relations between multiple variables are examined simultaneously).

👉🏻Multivariate means more than two variables are being examined and bivariate means only two variables are being analyzed. Univariate  means that just one variable is being examined. ... As you can see, multivariate and bivariate analysis is critical in determining cause and effect and relationships between variables.

👉🏻What is bivariate analysis examples?
Bivariate analysis means the analysis of bivariate data. It is one of the simplest forms of statistical analysis, used to find out if there is a relationship between two sets of values. It usually involves the variables X and Y. Univariate analysis is the analysis of one (“uni”) variable.

👉🏻A regression analysis with one dependent variable and 8 independent variables is NOT a multivariate regression. It's a multiple regression. Multivariate analysis ALWAYS refers to the dependent variable. So when you're in SPSS, choose univariate GLM for this model, not multivariate.

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Multivariate and Bivariate Analysis
INTRODUCTION TO MULTIVARIATE AND BIVARIATE ANALYSIS

When conducting research, analysts attempt to measure cause and effect to draw conclusions among variables. For example, in order to test whether a drug can reduce appetite, researchers give participants a dose of the drug before each meal. The independent variable (or predictor) is the taking of the drug and appetite is the dependent variable (or outcome). The independent variable is the variable you manipulate in the study. The dependent variable is the variable you measure (appetite, for example).
One group takes the drug before each meal and a control group does not take drugs at all. After several days, the researchers note that the drug-takers have reduced their caloric intake voluntarily by 30%. Researchers now know that regular consumption of the drug reduces appetite. This type of study is called a univariate study because it examines the effect of the independent variable (drug use) on a single dependent variable (appetite).
BIVARIATE ANALYSIS

Bivariate studies are different from univariate studies because it allows the researcher to analyze the relationship between two variables (often denoted as X, Y) ins order to test simple hypotheses of association and causality. For example, if you wanted to know whether there is a relationship between the number of students in an engineering classroom (independent variable) and their grades in that subject (dependent variable), you would use bivariate analysis since it measures two elements based on the observation of data.
There are essentially four steps to conducting bivariate analysis as follows:
Step 1: Define the nature of the relationship

For example, if you were testing the relationship of class size and grades in an engineering class, then you would report the following: “The data show a relationship between class size and grades. Smaller class sizes (20 or less students) have a grade point average of 4,4 whereas larger class sizes (21-100 students) have a grade point average of 3,1. This demonstrates that students in smaller classes earn grades that are 30% higher than those in large classes.”
Step 2: Identify the type and direction of the relationship

In order to determine the type and direction of the relationship you must determine which of the four levels of measurement you will use for your data:
Nominal, which is non-numerical and places an object within a category (ex. male or female)
Ordinal, which ranks data from lowest to highest, 3) interval, which indicates the distance of one object to the next and
Ratio, which contains a

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👉🏻Animal language is any form of communication that shows similarities to human language; however, there are significant differences. Some animals use signs, signals, or sounds to communicate. ... Other animals use odors or body movements to communicate.

👉🏻The Main Differences: In Depth

While many scholars may add to this list, this article will examine seven properties that are largely unique to human language: duality, creativity, displacement, interchangeability, cultural transmission, arbitrariness, and biology.

Duality


Duality of patterning: Distinctive sounds, called phonemes, are arbitrary and have no meaning. But humans can string these sounds in an infinite number of ways to create meaning via words and sentences.
The primary difference is known as duality of patterning, or structure. Each human language has a fixed number of sound units called "phonemes." These phonemes are combined to make morphemes, the smallest unit of sound that contains meaning. Thus, language has got two levels of patterning that are not present in other animals' communication.

Creativity

Yet another distinctive feature is creativity. Human beings use their linguistic resources to produce new expressions and sentences. They arrange and rearrange phonemes, morphemes, words, and phrases in a way that can express an infinite number of ideas. This is also called the open-endedness of language. Animal communication is a closed system. It cannot produce new signals to communicate novel events or experiences.

Displacement


Displacement: Human language can talk about things that aren't happening here or now. Other animals react only to stimuli in the present.
Human beings can talk of real or imaginary situations, places, or objects far removed from their present surroundings and time. Other animals, on the other hand, communicate in reaction to a stimulus in the immediate environment, such as food or danger. Because of this, human language is considered context-free, whereas animal communication is mostly context bound.

Interchangeability

Human language is interchangeable between sexes. But certain communications in animal world are performed only by one gender. For example, bee dancing is only performed by worker bees, which are female.

Cultural Transmission


Cultural Transmission: Human language is culturally transmitted, or taught. Other animals communicate largely with signs they are born knowing.
Another important difference is that human language is culturally transmitted. Human beings brought up in different cultures acquire different languages. Man can also learn other languages via the influence of other cultures. Animals lack this capacity. Their communication ability is transmitted biologically, so they are unable to learn other languages.

Arbitrariness

Human language is a symbolic system. The signs, or words, in language have no inherent connection to what they signify, or mean (that's why one object can have so many names in different languages). These signs can also be written with the symbols, or alphabet, of that language. Both verbal and written language can be passed down to future generations. Animal communication is not symbolic, which means ideas cannot be preserved for the future.

👉🏻Biology

Biological differences also play a vital role in communication. Human vocal cords can produce a large number of sounds. Each human language uses a number of those sounds. Animal and birds have entirely different biological structures, which impact the way they can form sounds.

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👉🏻Aristotle 's theory of imitation..

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👉🏻Aristotle did not invent the term “imitation”. Plato was the first to use the word in relation with poetry, but Aristotle breathed into it a new definite meaning. ... Thus Aristotle by his theory enlarged the scope of imitation. The poet imitates not the surface of things but the reality embedded within.

👉🏻Aristotle's theory of imitation
Aristotle did not invent the term “imitation”. Plato was the first to use the word in relation with poetry, but Aristotle breathed into it a new definite meaning. So poetic imitation is no longer considered mimicry, but is regarded as an act of imaginative creation by which the poet, drawing his material from the phenomenal world, makes something new out of it.

In Aristotle's view, principle of imitation unites poetry with other fine arts and is the common basis of all the fine arts. It thus differentiates the fine arts from the other category of arts. While Plato equated poetry with painting, Aristotle equates it with music. It is no longer a servile depiction of the appearance of things, but it becomes a representation of the passions and emotions of men which are also imitated by music. Thus Aristotle by his theory enlarged the scope of imitation. The poet imitates not the surface of things but the reality embedded within. In the very first chapter of the Poetic, Aristotle says:

“Epic poetry and Tragedy, Comedy also and Dithyrambic poetry, as also the music of the flute and the lyre in most of their forms, are in their general conception modes of imitation. They differ however, from one another in three respects – their medium, the objects and the manner or mode of imitation, being in each case distinct.”

The medium of the poet and the painter are different. One imitates through form and colour, and the other through language, rhythm and harmony. The musician imitates through rhythm and harmony. Thus, poetry is more akin to music. Further, the manner of a poet may be purely narrative, as in the Epic, or depiction through action, as in drama. Even dramatic poetry is differentiated into tragedy and comedy accordingly as it imitates man as better or worse.

Aristotle says that the objects of poetic imitation are “men in action”. The poet represents men as worse than they are. He can represent men better than in real life based on material supplied by history and legend rather than by any living figure. The poet selects and orders his material and recreates reality. He brings order out of Chaos. The irrational or accidental is removed and attention is focused on the lasting and the significant. Thus he gives a truth of an ideal kind. His mind is not tied to reality:

“It is not the function of the poet to relate what has happened but what may happen – according to the laws of probability or necessity.” .

👉🏻👉🏻🌹History tells us what actually happened; poetry what may happen. Poetry tends to express the universal, history the particular. In this way, he exhibits the superiority of poetry over history. The poet freed from the tyranny of facts, takes a larger or general view of things, represents the universal in the particular and so shares the philosopher’s quest for ultimate truth. He thus equates poetry with philosophy and shows that both are means to a higher truth. By the word ‘universal’ Aristotle signifies:

“How a person of a certain nature or type will, on a particular occasion, speak or act, according to the law of probability or necessity.”

The poet constantly rises from the particular to the general. He studies the particular and devises principles of general application. He exceeds the limits of life without violating the essential laws of human nature.

Elsewhere Aristotle says, “Art imitates Nature”. By ‘Nature’ he does not mean the outer world of created things but “the creative force, the productive principle of the universe.” Art reproduce mainly an inward process, a physical energy working outwards

APOLOGY FOR POETRY-SIR PHILIP SIDNEY

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MA ENGLISH

APOLOGY FOR POETRY-SIR PHILIP SIDNEY

Among the English critics, Philip Sidney holds a very important place. His Apology for Poetry is a spirited defence of poetry against all the charges laid against it since Plato. He considers poetry as the oldest of all branches of learning and establishes its superiority.
Poetry, according to Sidney, is superior to philosophy by its charm, to history by its universality, to science by its moral end, to law by its encouragement of human rather than civic goodness. Sidney deals with the usefulness of other forms of poetry also. (The pastoral pleases by its helpful comments on contemporary events and life in general, the elegy by its kindly pity for the weakness of mankind, the satire by its pleasant ridicule of folly, the lyric by its sweet praise of all that is praiseworthy, and the epic by its representation of the loftiest truths in the loftiest manner).
Reply to four charges
Stephen Gosson in his School of Abuse, leveled four charges against poetry. They were : (i) A man could employ his time more usefully than in poetry, (ii) It is the ‘mother of lies’, (iii) It is immoral and ‘the nurse of abuse’ and (iv) Plato had rightly banished poets from his ideal commonwealth.
Sidney gallantly defends all these charges in his ‘Apology for Poetry’. Taking the first charge, he argues that poetry alone teaches and moves to virtue and therefore a man cannot better spend his time than in it. Regarding the second charge, he points out that a poet has no concern with the question of veracity or falsehood and therefore a poet can scarcely be a liar. He disposes of the third charge saying that it is a man’s wit that abuses poetry and not vice versa. To the fourth charge, he says that it is without foundation because Plato did not find fault with poetry but only the poets of his time who abused it.
His Classicism
Sidney’s Apology is the first serious attempt to apply the classical rules to English poetry. He admires the great Italian writers of Renaissance (Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarch). All his pronouncements have their basis either on Plato or Aristotle or Horace. In his definition of poetry he follows both Aristotle and Horace : ‘to teach and delight’.
Sidney insists on the observance of the unities of time, place and action in English drama. He has no patience with the newly developed tragi-comedy. (His whole critical outlook in the unities and the tragi-comedy was affected by the absence of really good English plays till his time). He also praises the unrhymed classical metre verse. Poetry according to him, is the art of inventing new things, better than this world has to offer, and even prose that does so is poetry. Though he has admiration for the classical verse he has his native love of rhyme or verse. His love of the classics is ultimately reconciled to his love of the native tradition.
The Value of his Criticism
Though Sidney professes to follow Aristotle, his conception of poetry is different from Aristotle’s. To Aristotle, poetry was an art of imitation. To Sidney, it is an art of imitation for a specific purpose : it imitates ‘to teach and delight’. (Those who practise it are called makers and prophets).
Sidney also unconsciously differs with Aristotle in the meaning he gives to imitation. Poetry is not so much an art of imitation as of invention or creation. (It creates a new world altogether for the edification and delight of the reader). This brings him again close Plato. According to him, the poet imitates not the brazen world of Nature but the golden world of the Idea itself. So, Plato’s chief objection to poetry is here answered in full. Sidney makes poetry what Plato wished it to be – a vision of the idea itself and a force for the perfection of the soul.

Philip Sidney and appology for Poetry...


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👉🏻Philip Sidney was an Elizabethan courtier poet, diplomat and fierce Protestant Philip Sidney, who became an English national hero.


👉🏻Death Date: October 17, 1586
👉🏻Birth Date: November 30, 1554
Education: Shrewsbury School, University of Oxford, Christ Church College


👉🏻Brief Introduction about Critic..

👉🏻🌹Sir Philip Sidney (30 November 1554 – 17 October 1586) was an English poet, courtier, scholar, and soldier, who is remembered as one of the most prominent figures of the Elizabethan age. His works include Astrophel and Stella, The Defence of Poesy (also known as The Defence of Poetry or An Apology for Poetry), and The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia...

👉🏻Both through his family heritage and his personal experience (he was in Walsingham's house in Paris during the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre), Sidney was a keenly militant Protestant. In the 1570s, he had persuaded John Casimir to consider proposals for a united Protestant effort against the Roman Catholic Church and Spain. In the early 1580s, he argued unsuccessfully for an assault on Spain itself. Promoted General of Horse in 1583,his enthusiasm for the Protestant struggle was given a free rein when he was appointed governor of Flushing in the Netherlands in 1585. In the Netherlands, he consistently urged boldness on his superior, his uncle the Earl of Leicester. He conducted a successful raid on Spanish forces near Axel in July, 1586.
👉🏻Introduction and Biograpghy of Philip Sidney


🌹Sir Philip Sidney was born on November 30, 1554, at Penshurst, Kent. He was the eldest son of Sir Henry Sidney, Lord Deputy of Ireland, and nephew of  Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester.  He was named after his godfather,  King Philip II of Spain.

After private tutelage, Philip Sidney entered Shrewsbury School at the age of ten in 1564, on the same day as Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, who became his fast friend and, later, his biographer. After attending Christ Church, Oxford, (1568-1571) he left without taking a degree in order to complete his education by travelling the continent. Among the places he visited were Paris, Frankfurt, Venice, and Vienna.

Sidney returned to England in 1575, living the life of a popular and eminent courtier. In 1577, he was sent as ambassador to the German Emperor and the Prince of Orange. Officially, he had been sent to condole the princes on the deaths of their fathers. His real mission was to feel out the chances for the creation of a Protestant league. Yet, the budding diplomatic career was cut short because Queen Elizabeth I found Sidney to be perhaps too ardent in his Protestantism, the Queen preferring a more cautious approach.

Upon his return, Sidney attended the court of Elizabeth I, and was considered "the flower of chivalry."  He was also a patron of the arts, actively encouraging such authors as Edward Dyer, Greville, and most importantly, the young poet Edmund Spenser, who dedicated The Shepheardes Calender to him. In 1580, he incurred the Queen Elizabeth's displeasure by opposing her projected marriage to the Duke of Anjou, Roman Catholic heir to the French throne, and was dismissed from court for a time. He left the court for the estate of his cherished sister Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke.  During his stay, he wrote the long pastoral romance Arcadia.

At some uncertain date, he composed a major piece of critical prose that was published after his death under the two titles, The Defence of Poesy and An Apology for Poetry. Sidney's Astrophil and Stella ("Starlover and Star") was begun probably around 1576, during his courtship with Penelope Devereux.  Astrophil and Stella, which includes 108 sonnets and 11 songs, is the first in the long line of Elizabethan sonnet cycles.  Most of the sonnets are influenced by Petrarchan conventions — the abject lover laments the coldness of his beloved lady towards him, even though 

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👉🏻👉🏻What is criticism...

👉🏻👉🏻Criticism is the practice of judging the merits and faults of something. The judger is called a critic. To engage in criticism is to criticise One specific item of criticism is called a criticism or critique.

👉🏻👉🏻The judger is called a critic.
To engage in criticism is to criticise (in British English – see American and British English spelling differences.)
One specific item of criticism is called a criticism or critique.
Criticism is an evaluative or corrective exercise that can occur in any area of human life. Criticism can therefore take many different forms (see below). How exactly people go about criticizing, can vary a great deal. In specific areas of human endeavour, the form of criticism can be highly specialized and technical; it often requires professional knowledge to understand the criticism.

👉🏻👉🏻👉🏻🌹Another meaning of criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature, artwork, film, and social trends  The goal of this type of criticism is to understand the possible meanings of cultural phenomena, and the context in which they take shape. In so doing, the attempt is often made to evaluate how cultural productions relate to other cultural productions, and what their place is within a particular genre, or a particular cultural tradition.


👉🏻👉🏻🌹Early English meaning
The English word criticism is derived from the French critique, which dates back to at least the 14th century.
The words "critic" and "critical" existed in the English language from the mid-16th century, and the word "criticism" first made its appearance in English in the early 17th century

👉🏻👉🏻✋🏼In turn, the French expression critique has roots in Latin ("criticus" – a judger, decider, or critic), and, even earlier, classical Greek language ("krites" means judge, and "kritikos" means able to make judgements, or the critic). Related Greek terms are krinein (separating out, deciding), krei- (to sieve, discriminate, or distinguish) and krisis (literally, the judgement, the result of a trial, or a selection resulting from a choice or decision). Crito is also the name of a pupil and friend of the Greek philosopher Socrates, as well as the name of an imaginary dialogue about justice written by the philosopher Plato in the context of the execution of Socrates.

👉🏻👉🏻✋🏼The early English meaning of criticism was primarily literary criticism, that of judging and interpreting literature. Samuel Johnson is often held as the prime example of criticism in the English language, and his contemporary Alexander Pope's Essay on Criticism is a significant landmark. In the course of the 17th century, it acquired the more general sense of censure, as well as the more specialized meaning of the "discernment of taste", i.e. the art of estimating the qualities and character of literary or artistic works, implicitly from the point of view of a consumer.

👉🏻👉🏻👉🏻✋🏼In the 19th century, criticism also gained the philosophical meaning of "a critical examination of the faculty of knowledge", particularly in the sense used by Immanuel Kant. Such criticism was carried out mainly by academic authorities, businessmen and men of property with the leisure to devote themselves to the pursuit of knowledge.


👉🏻👉🏻👉🏻✋🏼20th century
In the 20th century, all these meanings continued, but criticism acquired the more general connotation of voicing an objection, or of appraising the pros and cons of something.

The shape and meanings of criticism were influenced considerably by wars (including two world wars) occurring almost continuously somewhere in the world.


👉🏻👉🏻✋🏼criticism have started to evolve more strongly toward "having an objection", "expressing dissent", "stating a dislike", "wanting to dissociate from something", or "rejecting something" ("If you liked it, you would not be criticizing it"). In the contemporary sense, criticism is often more the expression of an attitude, whe

#HOW_TO_ANALYZE_A_POEM
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👉1. ⭐#TO_BEGIN

Read the poem all the way through at least twice. Read it aloud. Listen to it. Poetry is related to music, so the sound is important. You listen to your favourite CDs many times; the principle is the same. It takes time to fully appreciate and understand a work of art. Make a note of your first impressions or immediate responses, both positive and negative. You may change your mind about the poem later, but these first ideas are worth recording.

👉2. ⭐#LITERAL_MEANING_AND_THEME

Before you can understand the poem as a whole, you have to start with an understanding of the individual words.

Get a good dictionary. Look up, and write down, the meanings of:

👉• words you don’t know

👉• words you “sort of know”

👉• any important words, even if you do know them.

 May be they have more than one meaning (ex. “bar”), or maybe they can function as different parts of speech (ex. “bar” can be a noun or a verb). If the poem was written a long time ago, maybe the history of the word matters, or maybe the meaning of the word has changed over the years (“jet” did not mean an airplane in the 16th century). An etymological dictionary like the Oxford English Dictionary can help you find out more about the history of a particular word.

Use an encyclopaedia or the Internet to look up people and places mentioned in the poem. These allusions may be a key to the poet’s attitudes and ideas.

As you pay attention to the literal meanings of the words of the poem, you may see some patterns emerging. These patterns may relate to the diction of the poem: does the poet use “street talk” or slang, formal English, foreign language phrases, or jargon?

Your goal, now that you’ve understood the literal meanings, is to try to determine the theme of the poem – the purpose the poet has in writing this poem, the idea he wants to express. In order to discover the theme, however, you need to look at the poem as a whole and the ways the different parts of the poem interact.

👉3. ⭐#TITLE

Start your search for the theme by looking at the title of the poem. It was probably carefully chosen. What information does it give you? What expectations does it create? (For example, a poem called “The Garden of Love” should cause a different response from the one called “The Poison Tree.”) Does the title tell you the subject of the poem (ex. “The Groundhog”)? Does the title label the poem as a specific literary type? (ex. “Ode to Melancholy”; “Sonnets at Christmas) If so, you should check what characteristics such forms have and discuss how the poet uses the “rules.” Is the title an object or event that becomes a key symbol? (see Language and Imagery)

👉4. ⭐#TONE

Next you might consider the tone. Who is peaking? Listen to the voice. ? Is it a man or a woman? Someone young or old? Is any particular race, nationality, religion, etc.

suggested? Does the voice sound like the direct voice of the poet speaking to you, expressing thoughts and feelings? Is a separate character being created, someone who is not necessarily like the poet at all (a persona)? Is the speaker addressing someone in particular? Who or what? Is the poem trying to make a point, win an argument, move someone to action? Or is it just expressing something without requiring an answer (ex. A poem about spring may just want to express joy about the end of winter, or it may attempt to seduce someone, or it may encourage someone to go plough in a field. What is the speaker’s mood? Is the speaker angry, sad, happy, cynical? How do you know?

This is all closely related to the subject of the poem (what is the speaker talking about?) and the theme (why is the speaker talking about this? What is the speaker trying to say about this subject?).

👉5. ⭐#STRUCTURE

How is the poem organized? How is it divided up? Are there individual stanzas or numbered sections? What does each section or stanza discuss? How are the sections or stanzas related to each other?

👉🏻👉🏻What is the definition of Language?..

In the view of some experts..

👉🏻Words are combined into sentences, this combination answering to that of ideas into thoughts.” The American linguists Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager formulated the following definition: “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates...


👉🏻Language is a system that consists of the development, acquisition, maintenance and use of complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so; and a language is any specific example of such a system. The scientific study of language is called linguistics.

👉🏻👉🏻Languages can differ in many ways. ... Dialects of a language may vary in terms of accents, the words people use, the way people structure their speech. This can be because of geographical distance or because of social factors. Often people who speak the same dialect will live in the same place.

👉🏻👉🏻✋🏼What is the definition of language diversity?
Language is a tool used by people to communicate with one another. As a part of culture, language helps people to stick together and do things that they could not have done as individuals. Linguistic diversity  is a way to talk about varied types of traits including language family, grammar, and vocabulary.
👉🏻👉🏻

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SIRRANA..

👉🏻👉🏻🌹Aristotle’s view about Hamartia, Anagnorisis, Peripeteia and Catharsis according to Poetics

Aristotle’s Theory of Tragedy:
According to Aristotle Tragedy could be defined as:
“A tragedy, then, is the imitation of an action that is serious and also, as having magnitude, complete in itself; in language with pleasurable acces­sories, each kind brought in separately in the parts of the work; in a dramatic, not in a narrative form; with in­cidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions.”
Following are some important terms explained by Aristotle relating tragedy in his Poetics.
Hamartia:                                                                    
Aristotle discusses hamartia in Poetics not as an aspect of character but rather as an incident in the plot. What Aristotle means by hamartia might better be translated as "tragic error". Caught in a crisis situation, the protagonist makes an error in judgment or action, "missing the mark," and disaster results.
Hamartia can be further explained as the fall of a noble man caused by some excess or mistake in behavior, not because of a willful violation of the gods' laws. Hamartia is related to hubris, which was also more an action than attitude. The "mistake" of the hero has an integral place in the plot of the tragedy. The logic of the hero's descent into misfortune is determined by the nature of his or her particular kind of hamartia.
Aristotle claimed that the hamartia must bring about the reversal of fortune for the tragic hero, and that this hero must be neither completely good nor completely bad so that the audience can identify with the character’s plight. Therefore, the audience members experience a feeling of pity for the character, as well as a sense of fear that the same downfall might afflict them someday.
Hamartia, in most ancient tragedies, causes the protagonist, or main character, to break a divine or moral law, which leads to disastrous consequences. Despite the horrible events befalling the tragic hero, tragedies celebrate the human spirit, in the confrontation of difficult situations and the accountability of a character for his or her own actions.
Examples:
In The King Oedipus, a tragic situation possible was the unwitting murder of one family member by another. Mistaken identity allows Oedipus to kill his father Laius on the road to Thebes and subsequently to marry Jocasta, his mother; only later does he recognize his tragic error. However, because he commits the crime in ignorance and pays for it with remorse, self-mutilation, and exile, the plot reaches resolution or catharsis, and we pity him as a victim of ironic fate instead of accusing him of blood guilt.
Hamlet, for example, suffers from the tragic flaw of indecision. He hesitates to kill his cruel and villainous uncle, which leads to the ultimate tragedy of the play. By struggling with an inherent moral flaw, Hamlet brings about his own destruction. His hesitation, therefore, is the action to which the term hamartia is applied.
Anagnorisis:
Anagnorisis, also known as discovery, originally meant recognition in its Greek context, not only of a person but also of what that person stood for, what he or she represented; it was the hero's suddenly becoming aware of a real situation and therefore the realization of things as they stood; and finally it was a perception that resulted in an insight the hero had into his relationship with often antagonistic characters within Aristotelian tragedy.
            In Aristotelian definition of tragedy it was the discovery of one's own identity or true character or of someone else's identity or true nature by the tragic hero. In his Poetics, Aristotle defined anagnorisis as "a change from ignorance to knowledge, producing love or hate between the persons destined by the poet for good or bad fortune".
Examples:
Aristotle was the first writer to discuss the uses of anagnorisis, w

Theory Of Tragedy

Classical theories
As the great period of Athenian drama drew to an end at the beginning of the 4th century BCE, Athenian philosophers began to analyze its content and formulate its structure. In the thought of Plato (c.  427–347 BCE), the history of the criticism of tragedy began with speculation on the role of censorship. To Plato (in the dialogue on the Laws) the state was the noblest work of art, a representation (mimēsis) of the fairest and best life. He feared the tragedians’ command of the expressive resources of language, which might be used to the detriment of worthwhile institutions. He feared, too, the emotive effect of poetry, the Dionysian element that is at the very basis of tragedy. Therefore, he recommended that the tragedians submit their works to the rulers, for approval, without which they could not be performed. It is clear that tragedy, by nature exploratory, critical, independent, could not live under such a regimen.

Plato is answered, in effect and perhaps intentionally, by Aristotle’s Poetics. Aristotle defends the purgative power of tragedy and, in direct contradiction to Plato, makes moral ambiguity the essence of tragedy. The tragic hero must be neither a villain nor a virtuous man but a “character between these two extremes,…a man who is not eminently good and just, yet whose misfortune is brought about not by vice or depravity, but by some error or frailty [hamartia].” The effect on the audience will be similarly ambiguous. A perfect tragedy, he says, should imitate actions that excite “pity and fear.” He uses Sophocles’ Oedipus the King as a paradigm. Near the beginning of the play, Oedipus asks how his stricken city (the counterpart of Plato’s state) may cleanse itself, and the word he uses for the purifying action is a form of the word catharsis. The concept of catharsis provides Aristotle with his reconciliation with Plato, a means by which to satisfy the claims of both ethics and art. “Tragedy,” says Aristotle, “is an imitation [mimēsis] of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude…through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation [catharsis] of these emotions.” Ambiguous means may be employed, Aristotle maintains in contrast to Plato, to a virtuous and purifying end.

To establish the basis for a reconciliation between ethical and artistic demands, Aristotle insists that the principal element in the structure of tragedy is not character but plot. Since the erring protagonist  is always in at least partial opposition to the state, the importance of tragedy lies not in the character but in the enlightening event. “Most important of all,” Aristotle said, “is the structure of the incidents. For tragedy is an imitation not of men but of an action and of life, and life consists in action, and its end is a mode of action, not a quality.” Aristotle considered the plot to be the soul of a tragedy, with character  in second place. The goal of tragedy is not suffering but the knowledge that issues from it, as the denouement issues from a plot. The most powerful elements of emotional interest in tragedy, according to Aristotle, are reversal of intention or situation (peripeteia) and recognition scenes (anagnōrisis), and each is most effective when it is coincident with the other. In Oedipus, for example, the messenger who brings Oedipus news of his real parentage, intending to allay his fears, brings about a sudden reversal of his fortune, from happiness to misery, by compelling him to recognize that his wife is also his mother.

Later critics found justification for their own predilections in the authority of Greek drama and Aristotle. For example, the Roman poet Horace, in his Ars poetica (Art of Poetry), elaborated the Greek tradition of extensively narrating offstage events into a dictum on decorum forbidding events such as Medea’s butchering of her sons from being performed on stage. And where Aristotle had discussed tragedy as a separate genre, superior

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👉🏻👉🏻Phonetics deals with the production of speech sounds by humans, often without prior knowledge of the language being spoken. Phonology is about patterns of sounds, especially different patterns of sounds in different languages, or within each language, different patterns of sounds in different positions in words etc.

👉🏻👉🏻🌹Phonetics is the study of sound in speech; phonology is the study (and use) of sound patterns to create meaning. Phonetics  focuses on how speech is physically created and received, including study of the human vocal and auditory tracts, acoustics, and neurology.

👉🏻👉🏻1. Phonetics vs. phonology
Phonetics deals with the production of speech sounds by humans, often without prior knowledge of the language being spoken. Phonology is about patterns of sounds, especially different patterns of sounds in different languages, or within each language, different patterns of sounds in different positions in words etc.
2. Phonology as grammar of phonetic patterns
The consonant cluster /st/ is OK at the beginning, middle or end of words in English.
At beginnings of words, /str/ is OK in English, but /ftr/ or /tr/ are not (they are ungrammatical).
/tr/ is OK in the middle of words, however, e.g. in "ashtray".
/tr/ is OK at the beginnings of words in German, though, and /ftr/ is OK word-initially in Russian, but not in English or German.
3. A given sound have a different function or status in the sound patterns of different languages
For example, the glottal stop [] occurs in both English and Arabic BUT ...
In English, at the beginning of a word, [] is a just way of beginning vowels, and does not occur with consonants. In the middle or at the end of a word, [] is one possible pronunciation of /t/ in e.g. "pat" [pa].
In Arabic, // is a consonant sound like any other (/k/, /t/ or whatever): [íktib] "write!", [daíia] "minute (time)", [a] "right".
4. Phonemes and allophones, or sounds and their variants
The vowels in the English words "cool", "whose" and "moon" are all similar but slightly different. They are three variants or allophones of the /u/ phoneme. The different variants are dependent on the different contexts in which they occur. Likewise, the consonant phoneme /k/ has different variant pronunciations in different contexts. Compare:

keep
/kip/
The place of articulation is fronter in the mouth
[k+h]
cart
/kt/
The place of articulation is not so front in the mouth
[kh]
coot
/kut/
The place of articulation is backer, and the lips are rounded
[khw]
seek
/sik/
There is less aspiration than in initial position
[k`]
scoop
/skup/
There is no aspiration after /s/
[k]
These are all examples of variants according to position (contextual variants). There are also variants between speakers and dialects. For example, "toad" may be pronounced [tëUd] in high-register RP, [toUd] or [tod] in the North. All of them are different pronunciations of the same sequence of phonemes. But these differences can lead to confusion: [toUd] is "toad" in one dialect, but may be "told" in another.

5. Phonological systems
Phonology is not just (or even mainly) concerned with categories or objects (such as consonants, vowels, phonemes, allophones, etc.) but is also crucially about relations. For example, the English stops and fricatives can be grouped into related pairs which differ in voicing and (for the stops) aspiration:

Voiceless/aspirated
ph
th
kh
f
s


h
Voiced/unaspirated
b
d

v
z
ð

(unpaired)
Patterns lead to expectations: we expect the voiceless fricative [h] to be paired with a voiced [], but we do not find this sound as a distinctive phoneme in English. And in fact /h/ functions differently from the other voiceless fricatives (it has a different distribution in words etc.) So even though [h] is phonetically classed as a voiceless fricative, it is phonologically quite different from /f/, /s/, // and //.

Different patterns are found in other languages. In Classical Greek a three-wa

👉🏻👉🏻Aristotle Six Elements of Tragedy...

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👉🏻According to Aristotle, tragedy has six main elements: plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle (scenic effect), and song (music), of which the first two are primary.

Plot character thought music spectacle diction..

👉🏻Components of Tragedy in Aristotle's Poetics
Aristotle's theory of tragedy is completely based on induction. The ample examples or citations that Aristotle uses in his text from the tragedies of Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides, make the idea clear that his theory of this literary genre comes from his extensive reading of their tragedies, and the ideas are mere generalizations of the commonalities in their tragedies.

Aristotle (384-322 BC)




Thus, it is interesting to see a theory that followed the genre for which it is actually theorized. But in modern times this theory has lost its importance with the development of different sorts of tragic plots ending with a catastrophe. Now its significance is limited to the level of differentiating Aristotelian mode of tragedy from non-Aristotelian mode.

Aristotle defines tragedy as "the imitation of an action that is serious and having magnitude, complete in itself" in the medium of poetic language and the manner of dramatic presentation which incorporates "incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish catharsis of such emotions". An undeniable fact associated with this cathartic effect is that tragic representation of suffering and terrific defeat leaves an audience, not depressed, but relieved or even exalted. This distinctive effect on the reader, "the pleasure of pity and fear", is a basic way to distinguish it from comic and other forms of dramatic representation. Moreover, Aristotle makes the pleasure of pity and fear a rule that governs the organization of the tragic plot and choice of tragic hero and sees that a dramatist's aim should always be how to achieve this end in his drama.

👉🏻🌹There are six major components in tragedy according to Aristotle. They are:
👉🏻(a) Plot

(b) Character

(c) Thought

(d) Diction

(e) Song

(f) Spectacle

(a) Plot: Aristotle defines plot as the soul of tragedy and emphasizes much on its unity. He treats it as a unified artistic whole directed toward the intended effect, that is, pleasure of pity and fear and catharsis of such human emotions. Being a unified whole, a plot should have a proper beginning, a middle and an end in which every part supports the whole and none of the parts are non-functional. And being an imitation of an action, the plot should imitate single action. The inclusion of a series of actions simply because they happen to a single character does not make an artistic whole.

In the plot, the events develop through complication to catastrophe. The "hamartia" or a severe tragic flaw of the protagonist leads to the complication and a sudden revelation, or "anagnorisis", of this flaw intensifies the complication and it in turn anticipates the tragic end of the character, or catastrophe after a sudden reversal in the fortune of the character, that is, "peripeteia". In this way, the plot moves from hamartia through anagnorisis and peripetiea to catastrophe. This shows that Aristotle favors the complex plot as opposed to the simple plot in which reversal of the situation is almost impossible.

(b) Character: It has a secondary place after the plot. By character, Aristotle means the tragic hero who is always a noble man who in turn is neither thoroughly good nor thoroughly evil but a mixture of both. He is always higher than the ordinary moral worth. If, according to Aristotle, the character is better-than-we-are, the tragic effect will be stronger. The tragic and unfortunate end of such a character moves in us pity and fear. He moves in us to pity because his misfortune is greater than what he actually deserves from his hamartia. Likewise, he moves us to fear, for we think of what will happen to our l

👉🏻👉🏻What is criticism...

👉🏻👉🏻Criticism is the practice of judging the merits and faults of something. The judger is called a critic. To engage in criticism is to criticise One specific item of criticism is called a criticism or critique.

👉🏻👉🏻The judger is called a critic.
To engage in criticism is to criticise (in British English – see American and British English spelling differences.)
One specific item of criticism is called a criticism or critique.
Criticism is an evaluative or corrective exercise that can occur in any area of human life. Criticism can therefore take many different forms (see below). How exactly people go about criticizing, can vary a great deal. In specific areas of human endeavour, the form of criticism can be highly specialized and technical; it often requires professional knowledge to understand the criticism.

👉🏻👉🏻👉🏻🌹Another meaning of criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature, artwork, film, and social trends  The goal of this type of criticism is to understand the possible meanings of cultural phenomena, and the context in which they take shape. In so doing, the attempt is often made to evaluate how cultural productions relate to other cultural productions, and what their place is within a particular genre, or a particular cultural tradition.


👉🏻👉🏻🌹Early English meaning
The English word criticism is derived from the French critique, which dates back to at least the 14th century.
The words "critic" and "critical" existed in the English language from the mid-16th century, and the word "criticism" first made its appearance in English in the early 17th century

👉🏻👉🏻✋🏼In turn, the French expression critique has roots in Latin ("criticus" – a judger, decider, or critic), and, even earlier, classical Greek language ("krites" means judge, and "kritikos" means able to make judgements, or the critic). Related Greek terms are krinein (separating out, deciding), krei- (to sieve, discriminate, or distinguish) and krisis (literally, the judgement, the result of a trial, or a selection resulting from a choice or decision). Crito is also the name of a pupil and friend of the Greek philosopher Socrates, as well as the name of an imaginary dialogue about justice written by the philosopher Plato in the context of the execution of Socrates.

👉🏻👉🏻✋🏼The early English meaning of criticism was primarily literary criticism, that of judging and interpreting literature. Samuel Johnson is often held as the prime example of criticism in the English language, and his contemporary Alexander Pope's Essay on Criticism is a significant landmark. In the course of the 17th century, it acquired the more general sense of censure, as well as the more specialized meaning of the "discernment of taste", i.e. the art of estimating the qualities and character of literary or artistic works, implicitly from the point of view of a consumer.

👉🏻👉🏻👉🏻✋🏼In the 19th century, criticism also gained the philosophical meaning of "a critical examination of the faculty of knowledge", particularly in the sense used by Immanuel Kant. Such criticism was carried out mainly by academic authorities, businessmen and men of property with the leisure to devote themselves to the pursuit of knowledge.


👉🏻👉🏻👉🏻✋🏼20th century
In the 20th century, all these meanings continued, but criticism acquired the more general connotation of voicing an objection, or of appraising the pros and cons of something.

The shape and meanings of criticism were influenced considerably by wars (including two world wars) occurring almost continuously somewhere in the world.


👉🏻👉🏻✋🏼criticism have started to evolve more strongly toward "having an objection", "expressing dissent", "stating a dislike", "wanting to dissociate from something", or "rejecting something" ("If you liked it, you would not be criticizing it"). In the contemporary sense, criticism is often more the expression of an attitude, whe